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Dopamine by itself is a potent activator of resting effector T cells (Teffs), via two independent ways: direct Teffs activation, and indirect Teffs activation by suppression of regulatory T cells (Tregs). The review covers the following findings: (i) T cells express functional dopamine receptors (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    s) D1R\u2010D5R, but their level and function are dynamic and context\u2010sensitive, (ii)\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    membranal protein levels do not necessarily correlate with\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR mRNA<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    levels, (iii) different T cell types\/subtypes have different\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    levels and composition and different responses to dopamine, (iv) autoimmune and pro\u2010inflammatory T cells and T cell leukaemia\/lymphoma also express functional\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    s, (v) dopamine (~10\n                    <jats:sup>\u22128<\/jats:sup>\n                    M) activates resting\/naive Teffs (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    8\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    &gt;&gt;&gt;\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    4\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    ), (vi) dopamine affects Th1\/Th2\/Th17 differentiation, (vii) dopamine inhibits already activated Teffs (i.e. T\u00a0\u00a0cells that have been already activated by either antigen, mitogen, anti\u2010CD3 antibodies cytokines or other molecules), (viii) dopamine inhibits activated Tregs in an autocrine\/paracrine manner. Thus, dopamine \u2018suppresses the suppressors\u2019 and releases the inhibition they exert on Teffs, (ix) dopamine affects intracellular signalling molecules and cascades in T cells (e.g.\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ERK<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    , Lck, Fyn,\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">NF<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    \u2010\n                    <jats:italic>\u03ba<\/jats:italic>\n                    B,\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">KLF<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    2), (x) T cells produce dopamine (Tregs&gt;&gt;&gt;Teffs), can release dopamine, mainly after activation (by antigen, mitogen, anti\u2010CD3 antibodies, PKC activators or other), uptake extracellular dopamine, and most probably need dopamine, (xi) dopamine is important for antigen\u2010specific interactions between T cells and dendritic cells, (xii) in few autoimmune diseases (e.g. multiple sclerosis\/\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SLE<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    \/rheumatoid arthritis), and neurological\/psychiatric diseases (e.g. Parkinson disease, Alzheimer's disease, Schizophrenia and Tourette), patient's T cells seem to have abnormal\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    s expression and\/or responses to dopamine or production of dopamine, (xiii) drugs that affect the dopaminergic system have potent effects on T cells (e.g. dopamine=Intropin, L\u2010dopa, bromocriptine, haloperidol, quinpirole, reserpine, pergolide, ecopipam, pimozide, amantadine, tetrabenazine, nomifensine, butaclamol). Dopamine\u2010induced activation of resting Teffs and suppression of Tregs seem beneficial for health and may also be used for immunotherapy of cancer and infectious diseases. Independently, suppression of\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DR<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    s in autoimmune and pro\u2010inflammatory T cells, and also in cancerous T cells, may be advantageous. The review is relevant to Immunologists, Neurologists, Neuroimmunologists, Hematologists, Psychiatrists, Psychologists and Pharmacologists.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/apha.12476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,26]],"date-time":"2015-02-26T08:36:17Z","timestamp":1424939777000},"page":"42-89","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":208,"title":["Dopamine and T cells: dopamine receptors and potent effects on T cells, dopamine production in T cells, and abnormalities in the dopaminergic system in T cells in autoimmune, neurological and psychiatric diseases"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"216","author":[{"given":"M.","family":"Levite","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Pharmacy Faculty of Medicine The Hebrew University Jerusalem Israel"},{"name":"Institute of Gene Therapy Hadassah Hebrew University Hospital Jerusalem Israel"},{"name":"School of Behavioral Sciences Academic College of Tel\u2010Aviv\u2010Yaffo Tel Aviv 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