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This study explores the relationship of diurnal salivary cortisol levels with oppositional defiant disorder (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ODD<\/jats:styled-content>) and caregiver attitudes toward physical punishment among boys in <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">M<\/jats:styled-content>ongolia.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>Salivary cortisol was collected in the home or institution 4 times daily for 4 days from 46 boys, aged 4\u201310 years, in Ulaanbaatar, <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">M<\/jats:styled-content>ongolia. Caregivers rated child disruptive behavior symptoms, attitudes toward physical punishment, and community violence exposures. Mixed effects models were used to estimate the association of psychopathology and caregiver attitudes with salivary cortisol levels.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Boys meeting criteria for <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ODD<\/jats:styled-content> displayed consistently lower diurnal salivary cortisol levels compared to boys without <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ODD<\/jats:styled-content> diagnoses. Controlling for <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ODD<\/jats:styled-content> diagnosis, boys with depression showed higher cortisol levels throughout the day. No other diagnosis was associated with cortisol levels. Psychiatric diagnosis accounted for 17% of between individual variations in cortisol levels unexplained by the covariates. In a separate model, caregivers\u2019 beliefs regarding physical punishment accounted for 11% of between individual differences: boys with caregivers who stated physical punishment was necessary for discipline displayed hypocortisolism. Institutionalization did not associate with cortisol levels.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title><jats:p>Salivary cortisol data from a non\u2010<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">W<\/jats:styled-content>estern naturalistic setting support an association of reduced basal <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPA<\/jats:styled-content> activity with disruptive behavior disorders and caregiver attitudes toward discipline. These findings suggest <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HPA<\/jats:styled-content> functioning may be a reflection of or mediate disruptive behavior disorders in children across ethnic and cultural settings.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/appy.12141","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,3]],"date-time":"2014-06-03T05:07:38Z","timestamp":1401772058000},"page":"7-19","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["Child abuse, disruptive behavior disorders, depression, and salivary cortisol levels among institutionalized and community\u2010residing boys in <scp>M<\/scp>ongolia"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3829-4820","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brandon A.","family":"Kohrt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology Emory University  Atlanta GA USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel 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