{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T19:06:58Z","timestamp":1791313618933,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":236,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,3]],"date-time":"2020-05-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1588464000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Aliment Pharmacol Ther"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Thiopurines in combination with glucocorticoids are used as first\u2010line, second\u2010line and maintenance therapies in autoimmune hepatitis and opportunities exist to improve and expand their use.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Aims<\/jats:title><jats:p>To describe the metabolic pathways and key factors implicated in the efficacy and toxicity of the thiopurine drugs and to indicate the opportunities to improve outcomes by monitoring and manipulating metabolic pathways, individualising dosage and strengthening the response.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>English abstracts were identified in PubMed by multiple search terms. Full\u2010length articles were selected for review, and secondary and tertiary bibliographies were developed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Thiopurine methyltransferase activity and 6\u2010tioguanine (6\u2010thioguanine) nucleotide levels influence drug efficacy and safety, and they can be manipulated to improve treatment response and prevent myelosuppression. Methylated thiopurine metabolites are associated with hepatotoxicity, drug intolerance and nonresponse and their production can be reduced or bypassed. Universal pre\u2010treatment assessment of thiopurine methyltransferase activity and individualisation of dosage to manipulate metabolite thresholds could improve outcomes. Early detection of thiopurine resistance by metabolite testing, accurate estimations of drug onset and strength by surrogate markers and adjunctive use of allopurinol could improve the management of refractory disease. Dose\u2010restricted tioguanine (thioguanine) could expand treatment options by reducing methylated metabolites, increasing the bioavailability of 6\u2010tioguanine nucleotides and ameliorating thiopurine intolerance or resistance.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>The efficacy and safety of thiopurines in autoimmune hepatitis can be improved by investigational efforts that establish monitoring strategies that allow individualisation of dosage and prediction of outcome, increase bioavailability of the active metabolites and demonstrate superiority to alternative agents.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.15743","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,4]],"date-time":"2020-05-04T03:40:45Z","timestamp":1588563645000},"page":"1286-1304","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Review article: opportunities to improve and expand thiopurine 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