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Aside from confirming cytological oestrus, vaginal cytology is of no assistance in predicting the most fertile day(s) in a bitch; however, a neglected avenue of research suggests that vaginal cytology may be of great importance in confirming the days of optimal fertility retrospectively. Similarly, vaginoscopy provides clues as to the stage of a bitch's cycle but is inadequate as a sole determinant of her most fertile days. Nevertheless, vaginoscopy is useful to identify very late oestrus and the onset of dioestrus, as well as Stage I of labour (cervical dilatation). Due to variations in the rate at which circulating progesterone concentrations rise in individual bitches, the reliability of circulating progesterone concentrations for determining the optimal day(s) of insemination with frozen\u2013thawed semen decreases as values rise. Moreover, progesterone assay results can vary widely due to extrinsic factors such as the time of blood sampling, sample storage conditions and the assay employed. Finally, this review investigates evidence surrounding various insemination routes and suggests that well\u2010performed vaginal insemination, even with frozen\u2013thawed semen, may be an acceptable approach for cases where transcervical insemination is impractical.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/avj.13336","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T04:14:20Z","timestamp":1715400860000},"page":"377-384","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Evidence\u2010based practice in canine artificial insemination"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"102","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9682-8969","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"CJ","family":"Joon\u00e8","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences James Cook University  Townsville Queensland 4811 Australia"},{"name":"North Queensland Reproduction  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