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We performed a literature search using the <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">P<\/jats:styled-content>ub<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">M<\/jats:styled-content>ed databases and the reference lists of the identified articles. Data from research show that the three pharmacological options reviewed are effective treatments for opioid dependence with positive long term outcomes. However, each one has its specific target population and setting. While methadone and buprenorphine are first line options, heroin\u2010assisted treatment is a second line option for those patients refractory to treatment with methadone with concomitant severe physical, mental, social and\/or functional problems. Buprenorphine seems to be the best option for use in primary care offices. The field of opioid dependence treatment is poised to undergo a process of reinforcement and transformation. Further efforts from researchers, clinicians and authorities should be made to turn new pharmacological options into clinical reality and to overcome the structural and functional obstacles that maintenance programmes face in combatting opioid dependence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.12031","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,11,13]],"date-time":"2012-11-13T12:27:35Z","timestamp":1352809655000},"page":"272-284","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Long term outcomes of pharmacological treatments for opioid dependence: does methadone still lead the pack?"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"77","author":[{"given":"Maria Paz","family":"Garcia\u2010Portilla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and CIBERSAM University of Oviedo  33006 Oviedo Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maria Teresa","family":"Bobes\u2010Bascaran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIBERSAM University 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