{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T07:50:28Z","timestamp":1780991428056,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,4]],"date-time":"2013-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1380844800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000030","name":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000030","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 AI067373"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 AI067373"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title><jats:p>Screening for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) has benefited greatly from the use of group testing (pooled testing) to lower costs. With the development of assays that detect multiple infections, screening practices now involve testing pools of individuals for multiple infections simultaneously. Building on the research for single infection group testing procedures, we examine the performance of group testing for multiple infections. Our work is motivated by chlamydia and gonorrhea testing for the infertility prevention project (IPP), a national program in the United States. We consider a two-stage pooling algorithm currently used to perform testing for the IPP. We first derive the operating characteristics of this algorithm for classification purposes (e.g., expected number of tests, misclassification probabilities, etc.) and identify pool sizes that minimize the expected number of tests. We then develop an expectation\u2013maximization (EM) algorithm to estimate probabilities of infection using both group and individual retest responses. Our research shows that group testing can offer large cost savings when classifying individuals for multiple infections and can provide prevalence estimates that are actually more efficient than those from individual testing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/biom.12080","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,12]],"date-time":"2013-10-12T02:41:03Z","timestamp":1381545663000},"page":"1064-1073","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Two-Stage Hierarchical Group Testing for Multiple Infections with Application to the Infertility Prevention Project"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"69","author":[{"given":"Joshua M.","family":"Tebbs","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina 29208 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher S.","family":"McMahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, South Carolina 29634 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher R.","family":"Bilder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln , Lincoln, Nebraska 68583 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0001","author":"","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood testing"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"942","DOI":"10.1198\/jasa.2010.ap09231","article-title":"Informative retesting","volume":"105","author":"Bilder","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa044029","article-title":"Screening the blood supply for West Nile Virus RNA by nucleic acid amplification testing","volume":"353","author":"Busch","year":"2005","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1537-2995.1998.381098440853.x","article-title":"Mini-pool screening by nucleic acid testing for hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and HIV: Preliminary results","volume":"38","author":"Cardoso","year":"1998","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0005","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sexually Transmitted Disease Surveillance 2011"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"640","DOI":"10.1198\/jasa.2011.tm10520","article-title":"Nonparametric regression analysis for group testing data","volume":"106","author":"Delaigle","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177731363","article-title":"The detection of defective members of large populations","volume":"14","author":"Dorfman","year":"1943","journal-title":"Annals of Mathematical Statistics"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1080\/00031305.1991.10475828","article-title":"A method for generating high-dimensional multivariate binary variates","volume":"45","author":"Emrich","year":"1991","journal-title":"American Statistician"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/S0091-7435(02)00058-0","article-title":"Asymptomatic sexually transmitted diseases: The case for screening","volume":"36","author":"Farley","year":"2003","journal-title":"Preventative Medicine"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2008.01718.x","article-title":"Experience of German Red Cross blood donor services with nucleic acid testing: Results of screening more than 30 million blood donations for human immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis C virus, and hepatitis B virus","volume":"48","author":"Hourfar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/87.2.315","article-title":"Efficient estimation of the prevalence of multiple rare traits","volume":"87","author":"Hughes-Oliver","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1994.10476832","article-title":"A two-stage adaptive group-testing procedure for estimating small proportions","volume":"89","author":"Hughes-Oliver","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0013","volume-title":"Pooling specimens: A decade of successful cost savings","author":"Jirsa","year":"2008"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-0420.2007.00817.x","article-title":"Comparison of group testing algorithms for case identification in the presence of testing error","volume":"63","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0b013e318231cd4a","article-title":"Cost savings and increased efficiency using a stratified specimen pooling strategy for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae","volume":"39","author":"Lewis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sexually Transmitted Diseases"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1674","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.4.1674-1677.2005","article-title":"Utility of pooled urine specimens for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in men attending public sexually transmitted infection clinics in Mumbai, India, by PCR","volume":"43","author":"Lindan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Microbiology"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/asr064","article-title":"Optimality of group testing in the presence of misclassification","volume":"99","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1982.tb01203.x","article-title":"Finding observed information using the EM algorithm","volume":"44","author":"Louis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-0420.2011.01644.x","article-title":"Informative Dorfman screening","volume":"68","author":"McMahan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-0934(03)00215-5","article-title":"High throughput screening of 16 million serologically negative blood donors for hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 by nucleic acid amplification testing with specific and sensitive multiplex reagent in Japan","volume":"112","author":"Mine","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Virological Methods"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa042291","article-title":"Detection of acute infections during HIV testing in North Carolina","volume":"352","author":"Pilcher","year":"2005","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwi262","article-title":"Association of Chlamydia trachomatis with persistence of high-risk types of human papillomavirus in a cohort of female adolescents","volume":"162","author":"Samoff","year":"2005","journal-title":"American Journal of Epidemiology"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/82.2.287","article-title":"On the informativeness and accuracy of pooled testing in estimating the prevalence of a rare disease: Application to HIV screening","volume":"82","author":"Tu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biometrika"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.05631-11","article-title":"Pooling nasopharyngeal\/throat swab speciments to increase testing capacity for influenza viruses by PCR","volume":"50","author":"Van","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Microbiology"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1126","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.01126.x","article-title":"Regression models for disease prevalence with diagnostic tests on pools of serum samples","volume":"56","author":"Vansteelandt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024010512552897400_biom12080-bib-0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1957","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.817","article-title":"Regression analysis of group testing samples","volume":"20","author":"Xie","year":"2001","journal-title":"Statistics in Medicine"}],"container-title":["Biometrics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fbiom.12080","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/biometrics\/article-pdf\/69\/4\/1064\/55046512\/biometrics_69_4_1064.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/biometrics\/article-pdf\/69\/4\/1064\/55046512\/biometrics_69_4_1064.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,18]],"date-time":"2024-05-18T16:55:01Z","timestamp":1716051301000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/biometrics\/article\/69\/4\/1064-1073\/7492362"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,4]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,4]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,12,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/biom.12080","relation":{},"ISSN":["0006-341X","1541-0420"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0006-341X","type":"print"},{"value":"1541-0420","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2013,12]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,4]]}}}