{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,1]],"date-time":"2025-10-01T15:21:12Z","timestamp":1759332072130,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,22]],"date-time":"2016-09-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1474502400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/journals\/pages\/open_access\/funder_policies\/chorus\/standard_publication_model"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 AI121351"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 AI121351"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Group testing, where individuals are tested initially in pools, is widely used to screen a large number of individuals for rare diseases. Triggered by the recent development of assays that detect multiple infections at once, screening programs now involve testing individuals in pools for multiple infections simultaneously. Tebbs, McMahan, and Bilder (2013, Biometrics) recently evaluated the performance of a two-stage hierarchical algorithm used to screen for chlamydia and gonorrhea as part of the Infertility Prevention Project in the United States. In this article, we generalize this work to accommodate a larger number of stages. To derive the operating characteristics of higher-stage hierarchical algorithms with more than one infection, we view the pool decoding process as a time-inhomogeneous, finite-state Markov chain. Taking this conceptualization enables us to derive closed-form expressions for the expected number of tests and classification accuracy rates in terms of transition probability matrices. When applied to chlamydia and gonorrhea testing data from four states (Region X of the United States Department of Health and Human Services), higher-stage hierarchical algorithms provide, on average, an estimated 11% reduction in the number of tests when compared to two-stage algorithms. For applications with rarer infections, we show theoretically that this percentage reduction can be much larger.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/biom.12589","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,22]],"date-time":"2016-09-22T17:16:49Z","timestamp":1474564609000},"page":"656-665","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Hierarchical Group Testing for Multiple Infections"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"73","author":[{"given":"Peijie","family":"Hou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina 29208 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Joshua M.","family":"Tebbs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, University of South Carolina , Columbia, South Carolina 29208 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher R.","family":"Bilder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, University of Nebraska-Lincoln , Lincoln, Nebraska 68583 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christopher S.","family":"McMahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences, Clemson University , Clemson, South Carolina 29634 , U.S.A."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0001","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2004.00187.x","article-title":"A cautionary note on the robustness of latent class models for estimating diagnostic error without a gold standard","volume":"60","author":"Albert","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0002","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0006-341X.2000.00833.x","article-title":"Maximally efficient two-stage screening","volume":"56","author":"Berger","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3261","DOI":"10.1002\/sim.5334","article-title":"Pooled testing procedures for screening high volume clinical specimens in heterogeneous populations","volume":"31","author":"Bilder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Statistics in Medicine"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9876.2011.01008.x","article-title":"Group testing in heterogeneous populations by using halving algorithms","volume":"61","author":"Black","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series C"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0005","article-title":"Recommendations for the laboratory-based detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae","volume-title":"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, March 14, 2014","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"2014"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177731363","article-title":"The detection of defective members of large populations","volume":"14","author":"Dorfman","year":"1943","journal-title":"Annals of Mathematical Statistics"},{"article-title":"Complete list of donor screening assays for infectious agents and HIV diagnostic assays","year":"2013","author":"Food and Drug Administration","key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0007"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0008","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3236","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01019-10","article-title":"Performance of the Abbott RealTime CT\/NG for detection of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae","volume":"48","author":"Gaydos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Microbiology"},{"article-title":"Pooling specimens: A decade of successful cost savings. National STD Prevention Conference, 2008","year":"2008","author":"Jirsa","key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0009"},{"author":"JSI Research & Training Institute, Inc.\/Denver","key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0010","article-title":"The Future of Infertility Prevention Project Health Impact Assessment: Policy Implications and Recommendations in Light of Passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, July 25, 2012"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-0420.2008.01158.x","article-title":"Three-dimensional array-based group testing algorithms","volume":"65","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1541-0420.2007.00817.x","article-title":"Comparison of group testing algorithms for case identification in the presence of testing error","volume":"63","author":"Kim","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1247","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1537-2995.2005.00198.x","article-title":"Hepatitis B virus (HBV) DNA screening of blood donations in minipools with the COBAS AmpliScreen HBV test","volume":"45","author":"Kleinman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Transfusion"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1097\/OLQ.0b013e318231cd4a","article-title":"Cost savings and increased efficiency using a stratified specimen pooling strategy for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae","volume":"39","author":"Lewis","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sexually Transmitted Diseases"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1994.10476764","article-title":"Screening for the presence of a disease by pooling sera samples","volume":"89","author":"Litvak","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of the American Statistical Association"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/biom.12385","article-title":"Reader reaction: A note on the evaluation of group testing algorithms in the presence of misclassification","volume":"72","author":"Malinovsky","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1093\/biostatistics\/kxs045","article-title":"Regression models for group testing data with pool dilution effects","volume":"14","author":"McMahan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biostatistics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2010.02.004","article-title":"Analytical and clinical performance evaluation of the cobas TaqScreen MPX Test for use on the cobas s201 system","volume":"165","author":"Ohhashi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Virological Methods"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0019","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1873","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa042291","article-title":"Detection of acute infections during HIV testing in North Carolina","volume":"352","author":"Pilcher","year":"2005","journal-title":"New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2751","DOI":"10.1097\/00002030-200012010-00015","article-title":"Feasibility of pooling sera for HIV-1 viral RNA to diagnose acute primary HIV-1 infection and estimate HIV incidence","volume":"14","author":"Quinn","year":"2000","journal-title":"AIDS"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0021","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1097\/01.olq.0000263262.00273.9c","article-title":"Routine detection of acute HIV infection through RNA pooling: Survey of current practice in the United States","volume":"34","author":"Sherlock","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sexually Transmitted Diseases"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0022","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1111\/biom.12080","article-title":"Two-stage hierarchical group testing for multiple infections with application to the Infertility Prevention Project","volume":"69","author":"Tebbs","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"2024011603215729900_biom12589-bib-0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2012.10.015","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of a triplex nucleic acid test for detection of HBV DNA, HCV RNA, and HIV-1 RNA, with the Procleix Tigris System","volume":"187","author":"Xiao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Virological Methods"}],"container-title":["Biometrics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fbiom.12589","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fbiom.12589","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/biometrics\/article-pdf\/73\/2\/656\/55988559\/biometrics_73_2_656.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/biometrics\/article-pdf\/73\/2\/656\/55988559\/biometrics_73_2_656.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,26]],"date-time":"2024-01-26T18:04:14Z","timestamp":1706292254000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/biometrics\/article\/73\/2\/656-665\/7537722"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,22]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,22]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/biom.12589","relation":{},"ISSN":["0006-341X","1541-0420"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0006-341X"},{"type":"electronic","value":"1541-0420"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2017,6]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2016,9,22]]}}}