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These bones are also the most sexually dimorphic parts of the skull in both australopiths and humans. In this review, we suggest that many of the facial features that characterize early hominins evolved to protect the face from injury during fighting with fists. Specifically, the trend towards a more orthognathic face; the bunodont form and expansion of the postcanine teeth; the increased robusticity of the orbit; the increased robusticity of the masticatory system, including the mandibular corpus and condyle, zygoma, and anterior pillars of the maxilla; and the enlarged jaw adductor musculature are traits that may represent protective buttressing of the face. If the protective buttressing hypothesis is correct, the primary differences in the face of robust <jats:italic>versus<\/jats:italic> gracile australopiths may be more a function of differences in mating system than differences in diet as is generally assumed. In this scenario, the evolution of reduced facial robusticity in <jats:italic>Homo<\/jats:italic> is associated with the evolution of reduced strength of the upper body and, therefore, with reduced striking power. The protective buttressing hypothesis provides a functional explanation for the puzzling observation that although humans do not fight by biting our species exhibits pronounced sexual dimorphism in the strength and power of the jaw and neck musculature. The protective buttressing hypothesis is also consistent with observations that modern humans can accurately assess a male's strength and fighting ability from facial shape and voice quality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12112","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,9]],"date-time":"2014-06-09T10:38:41Z","timestamp":1402310321000},"page":"330-346","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":62,"title":["Protective buttressing of the hominin face"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"90","author":[{"given":"David R.","family":"Carrier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Utah  257 S 1400 E Salt Lake City UT 84112 U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael H.","family":"Morgan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Emergency Medicine, The University of Utah School of Medicine  30 N 1900 E Salt Lake City UT 84132 U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsm.37.5.436"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/106939718301800302"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","volume-title":"An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy","author":"Aiello L.","year":"1990"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joms.2011.02.057"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/9780691207278"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0722.1993.tb01127.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0722.1989.tb00929.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/036354658801600205"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","volume-title":"Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual","author":"Bass W. 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