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However, the effectiveness of pesticides is threatened by the evolution of resistant pathogens, weeds and insect pests. Pesticides are mostly novel synthetic compounds, and yet target species are often able to evolve resistance soon after a new compound is introduced. Therefore, pesticide resistance provides an interesting case of rapid evolution under strong selective pressures, which can be used to address fundamental questions concerning the evolutionary origins of adaptations to novel conditions. We ask: (\n                    <jats:italic>i<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) whether this adaptive potential originates mainly from\n                    <jats:italic>de novo<\/jats:italic>\n                    mutations or from standing variation; (\n                    <jats:italic>ii<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) which pre\u2010existing traits could form the basis of resistance adaptations; and (\n                    <jats:italic>iii<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) whether recurrence of resistance mechanisms among species results from interbreeding and horizontal gene transfer or from independent parallel evolution. We compare and contrast the three major pesticide groups: insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Whilst resistance to these three agrochemical classes is to some extent united by the common evolutionary forces at play, there are also important differences. Fungicide resistance appears to evolve, in most cases, by\n                    <jats:italic>de novo<\/jats:italic>\n                    point mutations in the target\u2010site encoding genes; herbicide resistance often evolves through selection of polygenic metabolic resistance from standing variation; and insecticide resistance evolves through a combination of standing variation and\n                    <jats:italic>de novo<\/jats:italic>\n                    mutations in the target site or major metabolic resistance genes. This has practical implications for resistance risk assessment and management, and lessons learnt from pesticide resistance should be applied in the deployment of novel, non\u2010chemical pest\u2010control methods.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/brv.12440","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,4]],"date-time":"2018-07-04T02:35:50Z","timestamp":1530671750000},"page":"135-155","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":836,"title":["The evolutionary origins of pesticide resistance"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"94","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3389-0436","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nichola J.","family":"Hawkins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biointeractions and Crop Protection Rothamsted Research  Harpenden AL5 4SE U.K."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Bass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biosciences University of Exeter, Penryn Campus  Cornwall TR10 9FE U.K."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrea","family":"Dixon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biointeractions and Crop Protection Rothamsted Research  Harpenden AL5 4SE U.K."},{"name":"Department of Plant Biology University of Georgia  Athens GA 30602 U.S.A."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Neve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biointeractions and Crop Protection Rothamsted Research  Harpenden AL5 4SE U.K."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0079042"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/eva.12221"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2007.09.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pestbp.2015.04.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1314122110"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","first-page":"131","article-title":"Defense to the herbicide roundup predates its wide spread use","volume":"12","author":"Baucom R. 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