{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T00:11:23Z","timestamp":1788394283887,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767830400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":68,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753401600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Federal State of Saxony"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>The ability to control movement is a core element of agency. Previous studies of infant agency have focused on responses to sensory contingencies but neglected the importance of infants' control as a necessary indicator of agency. Here, we test whether infants flexibly control their eye movements with a gaze-contingent eye tracking paradigm. Infants aged 6\u201310 months (N = 45, 18 female, recruited in a city of about 600.000 inhabitants in Germany in 2022) were presented images hidden under a unicolored surface, which they could scratch free by gazing over the screen. Results show that infants flexibly directed their gaze to areas with most information in the underlying image. This indicates that infants can flexibly adjust their gaze to changing circumstances.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.70022","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,25]],"date-time":"2025-07-25T08:09:17Z","timestamp":1753430957000},"page":"1968-1977","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Infants in Control\u2014Evidence for Agency in 6- to 10-Months-Old Infants in a Gaze-Contingent Eye Tracking Paradigm"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"96","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2459-6190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian Markus","family":"Bednarski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group Milestones of Early Cognitive Development, Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences , Leipzig ,","place":["Germany"]},{"name":"Department of Philosophy, Leipzig University , Leipzig ,","place":["Germany"]},{"name":"School of Psychology, The University of Auckland , Auckland ,","place":["New Zealand"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8588-7664","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katrin","family":"Rothmaler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group Milestones of Early Cognitive Development, Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences , Leipzig ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0958-501X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon M","family":"Hofmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences , Leipzig ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2577-6174","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charlotte","family":"Grosse Wiesmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group Milestones of Early Cognitive Development, Max-Planck-Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences , Leipzig ,","place":["Germany"]},{"name":"Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Department of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Technology Nuremberg , Nuremberg ,","place":["Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0001","first-page":"114","volume-title":"Handbook of Child Psychology and Developmental Science","author":"Adolph","year":"2015","edition":"7th ed."},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0002","volume-title":"\u201cCurious Choices: Infants' Moment To-Moment Information Sampling Is Driven by Their Exploration History.\u201d","author":"Altmann","year":"2023"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0003","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2022.101022","article-title":"\u201cDo Infants Have Agency? The Importance of Control for the Study of Early Agency.\u201d","volume":"64","author":"Bednarski","year":"2022","journal-title":"Developmental Review"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0004","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327078IN0202_5","article-title":"\u201cInfant Cortical Development and the Prospective Control of Saccadic Eye Movements.\u201d","volume":"2","author":"Canfield","year":"2001","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0005","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2010.08.005","article-title":"\u201cThe Case for the Comparator Model as an Explanation of the Sense of Agency and Its Breakdowns.\u201d","volume":"21","author":"Carruthers","year":"2012","journal-title":"Consciousness and Cognition"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0006","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-013-0422-2","article-title":"\u201cPyGaze: An Open-Source, Cross Platform Toolbox for Minimal-Effort Programming of Eyetracking Experiments.\u201d","volume":"46","author":"Dalmaijer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0007","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1007\/s11097-009-9148-0","article-title":"\u201cReconstructing the Minimal Self, or How to Make Sense of Agency and Ownership.\u201d","volume":"9","author":"De Haan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0008","first-page":"157","article-title":"\u201cThe Problem of Action.\u201d","volume":"15","author":"Frankfurt","year":"1978","journal-title":"American Philosophical Quarterly"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0009","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2588","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-020-01392-6","article-title":"\u201cPyTrack: An End To-End Analysis Toolkit for Eye Tracking.\u201d","volume":"52","author":"Ghose","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"issue":"s1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0010","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S126","DOI":"10.1123\/jmld.2016-0078","article-title":"\u201cMeasuring Prospective Motor Control in Action Development.\u201d","volume":"6","author":"Gottwald","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Motor Learning and Development"},{"issue":"12","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0011","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1600","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797616667447","article-title":"\u201cAn Embodied Account of Early Executive-Function Development: Prospective Motor Control in Infancy Is Related to Inhibition and Working Memory.\u201d","volume":"27","author":"Gottwald","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0012","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/87565640903325758","article-title":"\u201cEye Tracking in Infancy Research.\u201d","volume":"35","author":"Gredeb\u00e4ck","year":"2009","journal-title":"Developmental Neuropsychology"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0013","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2005.04.012","article-title":"\u201cConscious Intention and Motor Cognition.\u201d","volume":"9","author":"Haggard","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0014","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000916","article-title":"\u201cDetection of Sensorimotor Contingencies in Infants Before the Age of 1 Year: A Comprehensive Review.\u201d","volume":"56","author":"Jacquey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0015","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210190","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.210190","article-title":"\u201cA Two-Lab Direct Replication Attempt of Southgate, Senju and Csibra (2007).\u201d","volume":"8","author":"Kampis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Royal Society Open Science"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0016","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1038\/s41562-022-01354-2","article-title":"\u201cThird-Party Punishment by Preverbal Infants.\u201d","volume":"6","author":"Kanakogi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Human Behaviour"},{"issue":"7","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0042","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.04.004","article-title":"\u201cOn the Self-organizing Origins of Agency.\u201d","volume":"20","author":"Kelso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0044","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-7078.2009.00018.x","article-title":"\u201c10-month-olds Visually Anticipate an Outcome Contingent on their Own Action.\u201d","volume":"15","author":"Kenward","year":"2010","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0017","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.137.1.39","article-title":"\u201cThe Control of Instrumental Action Following Outcome Devaluation in Young Children Aged Between 1 and 4 Years.\u201d","volume":"137","author":"Klossek","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0018","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.26.5.745","article-title":"\u201cViolation of Expectancy, Loss of Control, and Anger Expressions in Young Infants.\u201d","volume":"26","author":"Lewis","year":"1990","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0019","first-page":"51","article-title":"\u201cData Structures for Statistical Computing in Python.\u201d","volume":"445","author":"McKinney","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the 9th Python in Science Conference"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0020","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5498","DOI":"10.1038\/srep05498","article-title":"\u201cThe Image-Scratch Paradigm: A New Paradigm for Evaluating Infants' Motivated Gaze Control.\u201d","volume":"4","author":"Miyazaki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0021","volume-title":"\u201cPackage \u2018Bayesfactor\u2019.\u201d","author":"Morey","year":"2015"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0043","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1111\/infa.12582","article-title":"\u201cThe Role of Local Meaning in Infants' Fixations of Natural Scenes.\u201d","volume":"29","author":"Oakes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0023","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00496","article-title":"\u201cDevelopmental Changes in Endogenous Control of Attention: The Role of Target Familiarity on Infants' Distraction Latency.\u201d","volume":"73","author":"Oakes","year":"2002","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0022","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Advances in Child Development and Behavior","author":"Oakes","year":"2023"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0024","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2024.02.001","article-title":"\u201cCuriosity and the Dynamics of Optimal Exploration.\u201d","volume":"28","author":"Poli","year":"2024","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"39","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0025","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabb5053","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abb5053","article-title":"\u201cInfants Tailor Their Attention to Maximize Learning.\u201d","volume":"6","author":"Poli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science Advances"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0026","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1080\/00335558008248231","article-title":"\u201cOrienting of Attention.\u201d","volume":"32","author":"Posner","year":"1980","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0041","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2006.09.004","article-title":"\u201cIntentional Action Arises from Early Reciprocal Exchanges.\u201d","volume":"124","author":"Rochat","year":"2007","journal-title":"Acta Psychologica"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0027","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-6383(01)00055-8","article-title":"\u201cPerceived Self in Infancy.\u201d","volume":"23","author":"Rochat","year":"2000","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0028","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmp.2012.08.001","article-title":"\u201cDefault Bayes Factors for ANOVA Designs.\u201d","volume":"56","author":"Rouder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Mathematical Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0029","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0965(69)90025-3","article-title":"\u201cConjugate Reinforcement of Infant Exploratory Behavior.\u201d","volume":"8","author":"Rovee","year":"1969","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0030","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2407(08)60348-1","article-title":"\u201cThe Economics of Infancy: A Review of Conjugate Reinforcement.\u201d","volume":"13","author":"Rovee-Collier","year":"1979","journal-title":"Advances in Child Development and Behavior"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0031","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0163-6383(78)80044-7","article-title":"\u201cTopographical Response Differentiation and Reversal in 3-Month-Old Infants.\u201d","volume":"1","author":"Rovee-Collier","year":"1978","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0032","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1230-y","article-title":"\u201cBayes Factor Design Analysis: Planning for Compelling Evidence.\u201d","volume":"25","author":"Sch\u00f6nbrodt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin and Review"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0033","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643526","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2021.643526","article-title":"\u201cMaking the World Behave: A New Embodied Account on Mobile Paradigm.\u201d","volume":"15","author":"Sen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0034","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2008.02.001","article-title":"\u201cExecutive Attention and Self-Regulation in Infancy.\u201d","volume":"31","author":"Sheese","year":"2008","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0035","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)60023-0","article-title":"\u201cMastering Reaching and Grasping: The Development of Manual Skills in Infancy.\u201d","volume":"61","author":"von Hofsten","year":"1989","journal-title":"Advances in Psychology"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0036","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2004.04.002","article-title":"\u201cAn Action Perspective on Motor Development.\u201d","volume":"8","author":"von Hofsten","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0037","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e30884","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030884","article-title":"\u201cInfants in Control: Rapid Anticipation of Action Outcomes in a Gaze-Contingent Paradigm.\u201d","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0040","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2006.02.001","article-title":"\u201cGeneral to Specific Development of Movement Patterns and Memory for Contingency Between Actions and Events in Young Infants.\u201d","volume":"29","author":"Watanabe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infant Behavior and Development"},{"key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0038","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.07.006","article-title":"\u201cCan Infants' Sense of Agency Be Found in Their Behavior? Insights From Babybot Simulations of the Mobile-Paradigm.\u201d","volume":"181","author":"Zaadnoordijk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026010721084014800_cdev70022-cit-0039","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2011.03.001","article-title":"\u201cDetection of Visual\u2013Tactile Contingency in the First Year After Birth.\u201d","volume":"120","author":"Zmyj","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cognition"}],"container-title":["Child Development"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/chidev\/article-pdf\/96\/6\/1968\/66019436\/cdev70022.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/chidev\/article-pdf\/96\/6\/1968\/66019436\/cdev70022.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,8]],"date-time":"2026-01-08T02:09:45Z","timestamp":1767838185000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/chidev\/article\/96\/6\/1968\/8383981"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,10]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cdev.70022","relation":{},"ISSN":["0009-3920","1467-8624"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0009-3920","type":"print"},{"value":"1467-8624","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2024-07-05","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-07-15","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2025-07-25","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}