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Pairwise associations between clinical outcomes, and between atopy and clinical outcomes, were stronger in the urban survey. In the rural survey,\n                      <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SPT<\/jats:styled-content>\n                      positivity was inversely associated with bathing in lakewater,\n                      <jats:italic>Schistosoma\u2010<\/jats:italic>\n                      specific IgG4 and\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection. In the urban survey,\n                      <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">SPT<\/jats:styled-content>\n                      positivity was positively associated with age, non\u2010Ugandan maternal tribe, being born in a city\/town,\n                      <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">BCG<\/jats:styled-content>\n                      scar and light\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      infection. Setting (rural vs urban) was an effect modifier for risk factors including\n                      <jats:italic>Sm\u2010<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Schistosoma\u2010<\/jats:italic>\n                      specific IgG4. In both surveys, the dominant risk factors for asIgE sensitization were\n                      <jats:italic>Schistosoma<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2010specific antibody levels and helminth infections. Handwashing and recent malaria treatment reduced odds of asIgE sensitization among rural but not urban participants. Risk factors for clinical outcomes also differed by setting. Despite suggestive trends, we did not find sufficient evidence to conclude that helminth (\n                      <jats:italic>Sm<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) exposure explained rural\u2010urban differences in risk factors.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions and clinical relevance<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Risk factors for allergy\u2010related outcomes differ between rural and urban communities in Uganda but helminth exposure is unlikely to be the sole mechanism of the observed effect modification between the two settings. Other environmental exposures may contribute significantly.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.13335","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,11]],"date-time":"2019-01-11T12:53:50Z","timestamp":1547211230000},"page":"663-676","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Do helminth infections underpin urban\u2010rural differences in risk factors for allergy\u2010related outcomes?"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"49","author":[{"given":"Gyaviira","family":"Nkurunungi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Immunomodulation and Vaccines Programme (MRC\/UVRI and LSHTM) Uganda Research Unit Medical Research Council\/Uganda Virus Research Institute Entebbe Uganda"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Research London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine London 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