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An abundance of \u201cgood bacteria,\u201d such as <jats:italic>Bifidobacterium<\/jats:italic>, or their products has been generally believed to be beneficial for any diseases, whereas \u201cbad bacteria,\u201d such as pathogenic <jats:italic>Helicobacter pylori<\/jats:italic>, are assumed to be always detrimental for hosts. However, this is not the case when we compare and contrast the association of the gut microbiota with two neurological diseases, multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. After <jats:italic>H. pylori<\/jats:italic> infection, pro\u2010inflammatory T helper (Th)1 and Th17 immune responses are initially induced to eradicate bacteria. However, <jats:italic>H. pylori<\/jats:italic> evades the host immune response by inducing Th2 cells and regulatory T cells that produce anti\u2010inflammatory interleukin\u201010. Suppression of anti\u2010bacterial Th1\/Th17 cells by regulatory T cells might enhance gastric <jats:italic>H. pylori<\/jats:italic> propagation<jats:italic>,<\/jats:italic> followed by a cascade reaction involving vitamin B<jats:sub>12<\/jats:sub> and folic acid malabsorption, plasma homocysteine elevation, and reactive oxygen species induction. This can damage the blood\u2010brain barrier, leading to accumulation of amyloid\u2010\u03b2 in the brain, a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. In contrast, this suppression of pro\u2010inflammatory Th1\/Th17 responses to <jats:italic>H. pylori<\/jats:italic> has protective effects on the hosts, as it prevents uncontrolled gastritis as well as suppresses the induction of encephalitogenic Th1\/Th17 cells, which can mediate neuroinflammation in multiple sclerosis. The above scenario might explain why chronic <jats:italic>H. pylori<\/jats:italic> infection is positively associated with Alzheimer's disease, whereas it is negatively associated with multiple sclerosis. Finally, we list \u201c10 pitfalls of microbiota studies,\u201d which will be useful for evaluating and designing clinical and experimental microbiota studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/cen3.12401","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,24]],"date-time":"2017-07-24T00:16:37Z","timestamp":1500855397000},"page":"215-232","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["<i>Helicobacter pylori<\/i> and gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis versus Alzheimer's disease: 10 pitfalls of microbiome studies"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Ah\u2010Mee","family":"Park","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology Kindai University Faculty of Medicine Osakasayama Osaka Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Seiichi","family":"Omura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology Kindai University Faculty of Medicine Osakasayama Osaka 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