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In Alzheimer's disease (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">AD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ), caffeine is beneficial in both men and women, in humans and animals. Similar effects of caffeine were observed in men with Parkinson's disease (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ); however, the effect of caffeine in female\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    patients is controversial due to caffeine's competition with estrogen for the estrogen\u2010metabolizing enzyme,\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">CYP<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    1A2. Studies conducted in animal models of\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    showed protective effects of A\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">\n                      <jats:sub>A<\/jats:sub>\n                      R\n                    <\/jats:styled-content>\n                    antagonism. A study found caffeine to be associated with earlier age of onset of Huntington's disease (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ) at intakes &gt;190\u00a0mg\/d, but studies in animal models have found equivocal results. Caffeine is protective in\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">AD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    and\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    at dosages equivalent to 3\u20105\u00a0mg\/kg. However, further research is needed to investigate the effects of caffeine on\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    in women. As well, the effects of caffeine in\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">ALS<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ,\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">HD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    and Machado\u2010Joseph disease need to be further investigated. Caffeine's most salient mechanisms of action relevant to neurodegenerative diseases need to be further explored.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.12684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,20]],"date-time":"2017-03-20T02:50:21Z","timestamp":1489978221000},"page":"272-290","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":274,"title":["The neuroprotective effects of caffeine in neurodegenerative diseases"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Mahshad","family":"Kolahdouzan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Kinesiology and Health Science Faculty of Health York University Toronto ON Canada"},{"name":"Muscle Health Research Centre York University Toronto ON Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3511-4345","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mazen J.","family":"Hamadeh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Kinesiology and Health 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