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We investigated whether this adaptation is primarily driven by recently experienced volatility in task demands, or can also be shaped by learned environmental knowledge indicating expected levels of volatility. To this end, we trained participants on a Wisconsin Card Sorting Test task where different environments required different speeds of task rule updating. We demonstrate that, initially, participants adopted task rule updating strategies depending on the most recently experienced levels of volatility and feedback (Experiment 1). However, after extensive (4 days) training (Experiment 2), participants updated task rules using strategies based on developed environmental knowledge. We also show how participants fine\u2010tuned their task rule updating strategies over learning. In sum, our findings provide important insights into how humans update task rules using different strategies and highlight the importance of multiday training in developing environmental knowledge for the regulation of cognitive control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.70262","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T05:14:47Z","timestamp":1789449287000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Learning and Using Different Task Rule Updating Strategies Require Extensive Practice"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"50","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4604-372X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengjie","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Psychology Ghent University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4580-7831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tanya","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meta Reality Labs"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7956-3241","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"Egner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Duke University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7783-4754","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom","family":"Verguts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Psychology Ghent University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2619-8225","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Senne","family":"Braem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Psychology Ghent University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000324"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000047"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.02.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev\u2010psych\u2010022024\u2010103901"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.00871"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2024.07.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1954"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525\u00d723003266"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2019.02.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2023.101347"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721418787475"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xlm0000310"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.02.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035032"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426\u2010014\u20100638\u20105"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5334\/joc.423"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xhp0000420"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.051508.135409"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0030852"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2020.01.032"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.02.027"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525\u00d72200142X"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797616639301"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2012.08.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_26_1","article-title":"How the mind creates structure: Hierarchical learning of action sequences","volume":"43","author":"Eckstein M. 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