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Pharmacologic treatment strategies in NOWS have been mostly empirical, and heterogeneity in dosing regimens adds to the difficulty of extrapolating study results to broader patient populations. As population pharmacokinetics (PKs) of pharmacologic agents in NOWS become more well\u2010defined and knowledge of patient\u2010specific factors affecting treatment outcomes continue to accumulate, PK\/pharmacodynamic modeling and simulation will be powerful tools to aid the design of optimal dosing regimens at the patient level. 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