{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T03:57:31Z","timestamp":1790913451509,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Drug and Alcohol Review"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Introduction<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Large language models (LLM) and generative Artificial Intelligence are increasingly providing health information. We have applied a novel method to evaluate the harm reduction information generated by popular LLMs. We focused on the filtration of oral medications for injection and the availability of local harm reduction services.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We designed a scoring rubric to evaluate the accuracy of the information provided by each LLM and applied it to four unique, commonly used LLMs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Gemini 2.5 Flash (87%) and ChatGPT\u20104o (77%) scored higher than DeepSeek R1 Distill Llama 3.3 70B (22%) and Llama 4 (18%). Overall, both Gemini and ChatGPT\u20104o gave comprehensive and accurate instructions for the use of micron filters for drug injection, while neither DeepSeek R1 nor Llama 4 provided instructions on their use. Gemini 2.5 and ChatGPT\u20104o both scored highly for harm reduction general information and situational questions, while DeepSeek R1 and Llama 4 provided limited to no responses. Gemini 2.5 and ChatGPT\u20104o both provided accurate, location\u2010specific information on local harm reduction services. Specific models also generated misinformation, further affirming the need for in\u2010person, nuanced discussions with harm reduction specialists.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Discussion and Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In this study, we presented a novel method for evaluating LLMs' potential effectiveness for harm reduction across common techniques and situations. Most of the tested LLMs provided reasonable information in a non\u2010judgmental manner, but they also provided misinformation, and some wouldn't answer questions due to built\u2010in safety parameters. The developed scoring rubric can be easily adapted to other harm reduction topics for ongoing evaluation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.70272","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T03:30:47Z","timestamp":1790911847000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Evaluating Harm Reduction Advice From Large Language Models"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"45","author":[{"given":"Khy","family":"Choo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Rural Health Monash University  Mildura Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0472-1022","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nathan","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Drugs and Alcohol Services, Mental Health Drugs and Alcohol Services Barwon Health  Geelong Australia"},{"name":"Academic Regional and Rural Addiction Network  Geelong Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8166-6386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernadette","family":"Ward","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Rural Health Monash University  Mildura Australia"},{"name":"Behaviours and Health Risks Program Burnet Institute  Melbourne Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5992-2822","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert M.","family":"Lundin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Rural Health Monash University  Mildura Australia"},{"name":"Drugs and Alcohol Services, Mental Health Drugs and Alcohol Services Barwon Health  Geelong Australia"},{"name":"Academic Regional and Rural Addiction Network  Geelong Australia"},{"name":"Alcohol and Other Drugs Integrated Treatment Team, Area Mental Health and Wellbeing Services Mildura Base Public Hospital  Mildura Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmedinf.2024.105780"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/neu.2024.50"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/nsr\/nwaf050"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JCP.0000000000001734"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/YCT.0000000000000941"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bdi.13379"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/tc\u20102023\u2010058009"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2024.116058"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ofid\/ofaf108"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.13772"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.12196"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/SAR.S183256"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abrep.2021.100398"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dar.12481"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2024.104515"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/157488612803251298"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","volume-title":"How to Use a Wheel Filter","author":"North Richmond Community Health","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","unstructured":"New Zealand Needle Exchange Programme Filtering Drugs: A Guide to Filters and Filtering Drugs for Injection2019 https:\/\/nznep.org.nz\/_assets\/img\/Resources\/Filtering\u2010Booklet\u2010NZNEP.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","unstructured":"Australian Injecting and Illicit Drug Users League (AIVL) AIVL Vein Care Guide2020 https:\/\/aivl.org.au\/wp\u2010content\/uploads\/2024\/03\/AIVL_Vein_Care_Guide_2020\u2010FINAL.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","volume-title":"How to Use A Wheel Filter","author":"Peer Based Harm Reduction WA (PBHRWA)","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_22_1","volume-title":"Your Guide to Filtering","author":"WAAC","year":"2025"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_23_1","unstructured":"OpenAI Model Release Notes2024[Computer Software] https:\/\/help.openai.com\/en\/articles\/9624314\u2010model\u2010release\u2010notes."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_24_1","unstructured":"Google Gemini 2.5 Flash[Computer Software] 2025 https:\/\/cloud.google.com\/vertex\u2010ai\/generative\u2010ai\/docs\/models\/gemini\/2\u20105\u2010flash."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_25_1","unstructured":"Meta AI The Llama 4 Herd: The Beginning of a New Era of Natively Multimodal AI Innovation2025[Computer Software] https:\/\/ai.meta.com\/blog\/llama\u20104\u2010multimodal\u2010intelligence\/."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_26_1","unstructured":"Lambda DeepSeek R1 Distill Llama 3.3 70B2025[Computer Software] https:\/\/lambda.ai\/inference\u2010models\/deepseek\u2010llama3.3\u201070b."},{"key":"e_1_2_11_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2196\/49240"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2016.12.004"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378\u20105173(96)04813\u20102"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5694\/mja2.52598"}],"container-title":["Drug and Alcohol 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