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Early stress might be associated with these broad changes in functioning because it impairs general learning mechanisms. To explore this possibility, we examined whether individuals who experienced abusive caregiving in childhood had difficulties with instrumental learning and\/or cognitive flexibility as adolescents. Fifty\u2010three 14\u201317\u2010year\u2010old adolescents (31 exposed to high levels of childhood stress, 22 control) completed an\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">fMRI<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    task that required them to first learn associations in the environment and then update those pairings. Adolescents with histories of early life stress eventually learned to pair stimuli with both positive and negative outcomes, but did so more slowly than their peers. Furthermore, these stress\u2010exposed adolescents showed markedly impaired cognitive flexibility; they were less able than their peers to update those pairings when the contingencies changed. These learning problems were reflected in abnormal activity in learning\u2010 and attention\u2010related brain circuitry. Both altered patterns of learning and neural activation were associated with the severity of lifetime stress that the adolescents had experienced. Taken together, the results of this experiment suggest that basic learning processes are impaired in adolescents exposed to early life stress. These general learning mechanisms may help explain the emergence of social problems observed in these individuals.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12596","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,19]],"date-time":"2017-10-19T21:16:45Z","timestamp":1508447805000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":106,"title":["Instrumental learning and cognitive flexibility processes are impaired in children exposed to early life stress"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Madeline B.","family":"Harms","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Deaprtment of Psychology University of Wisconsin\u2010Madison  Madison WI USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Katherine E.","family":"Shannon Bowen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Deaprtment of Psychology University of Wisconsin\u2010Madison  Madison WI USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jamie L.","family":"Hanson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Deaprtment of Psychology University of Wisconsin\u2010Madison  Madison WI USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Seth D.","family":"Pollak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Deaprtment of Psychology University of Wisconsin\u2010Madison  Madison WI USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","volume-title":"Manual for the ASEBA School\u2010Age Forms & Profiles","author":"Achenbach T.M.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.06.014"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07538"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(03)00233-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1266"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2015.252"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.93.1.106"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/foc.2005.0001"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.012470999"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsq041"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2014.06.027"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.12.016"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/cbmr.1996.0014"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1614961114"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2008.08.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.02.019"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031808"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1528-3542.7.2.336"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2011.10.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2008.00688.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2008.08.021"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2431-05.2005"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhp247"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2012.12.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.chi.0000227882.50404.11"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2897"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsv124"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12694"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0859-10.2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2015.05.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.04.020"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00052"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0031511"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2014.10.020"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_36_1","unstructured":"Hollingshead A.B.(1975).Four factor index of social status. 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