{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T14:47:12Z","timestamp":1791384432767,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,15]],"date-time":"2018-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1536969600000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":365,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#am"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,15]],"date-time":"2017-09-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1505433600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BCS\u20101029082"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BCS\u20101029082"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Developmental Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Executive function (<jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EF<\/jats:styled-content>) is a key cognitive process that emerges in early childhood and facilitates children's ability to control their own behavior. Individual differences in <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EF<\/jats:styled-content> skills early in life are predictive of quality\u2010of\u2010life outcomes 30 years later (Moffitt et\u00a0al., 2011). What changes in the brain give rise to this critical cognitive ability? Traditionally, frontal cortex growth is thought to underlie changes in cognitive control (Bunge &amp; Zelazo, 2006; Moriguchi &amp; Hiraki, 2009). However, more recent data highlight the importance of long\u2010range cortical interactions between frontal and posterior brain regions. Here, we test the hypothesis that developmental changes in <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EF<\/jats:styled-content> skills reflect changes in how posterior and frontal brain regions work together. Results show that children who fail a \u201chard\u201d version of an <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EF<\/jats:styled-content> task and who are thought to have an immature frontal cortex, show robust frontal activity in an \u201ceasy\u201d version of the task. We show how this effect can arise via posterior brain regions that provide on\u2010the\u2010job training for the frontal cortex, effectively teaching the frontal cortex adaptive patterns of brain activity on \u201ceasy\u201d <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EF<\/jats:styled-content> tasks. In this case, frontal cortex activation can be seen as both the cause and the consequence of rule switching. Results also show that older children have differential posterior cortical activation on \u201ceasy\u201d and \u201chard\u201d tasks that reflects continued refinement of brain networks even in skilled children. These data set the stage for new training programs to foster the development of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">EF<\/jats:styled-content> skills in at\u2010risk children.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.12602","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,15]],"date-time":"2017-09-15T06:45:26Z","timestamp":1505457926000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Changes in frontal and posterior cortical activity underlie the early emergence of executive function"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Aaron T.","family":"Buss","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Tennessee  Knoxville TN USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"John P.","family":"Spencer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology University of East Anglia  Norwich UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_12_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2006.06.003"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4249\/scholarpedia.6997"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2000.0674"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_5_1","first-page":"118","article-title":"A brain\u2010based account of the development of rule use in childhood","volume":"15","author":"Bunge S.A.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.05.034"},{"key":"e_1_2_12_7_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"The emergent executive: A dynamic neural field theory of the development of executive function","volume":"79","author":"Buss A.T.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Monographs of the Society for Research in Child 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