{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T06:01:22Z","timestamp":1789192882873,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,1]],"date-time":"2023-02-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1675209600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Developmental Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:label\/><jats:p>Even once children can accurately remember their experiences, they nevertheless struggle to use those memories in flexible new ways\u2014as in when drawing inferences. However, it remains an open question as to whether the developmental differences observed during both memory formation and inference itself represent a fundamental limitation on children's learning mechanisms, or rather their deployment of suboptimal strategy. Here, 7\u20139\u2010year\u2010old children (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a0154) and young adults (<jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\u00a0=\u00a0130) first formed strong memories for initial (AB) associations and then engaged in one of three learning strategies as they viewed overlapping (BC) pairs. We found that being told to integrate\u2014combine ABC during learning\u2014both significantly improved children's ability to explicitly relate the indirectly associated A and C items during inference and protected the underlying pair memories from forgetting. However, this finding contrasted with implicit evidence for memory\u2010to\u2010memory connections: Adults and children both formed A\u2010C links prior to any knowledge of an inference test\u2014yet for children, such links were most apparent when they were told to simply encode BC, not integrate. Moreover, the accessibility of such implicit links differed between children and adults, with adults using them to make explicit inferences but children only doing so for well\u2010established direct AB pairs. These results suggest that while a lack of integration strategy may explain a large share of the developmental differences in explicit inference, children and adults nevertheless differ in both the circumstances under which they connect interrelated memories and their ability to later leverage those links to inform flexible behaviours.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Research Highlights<\/jats:title><jats:p><jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Children and adults view AB and BC pairs related through a shared item, B. This provides an opportunity for learners to connect A\u2013C in memory.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Being encouraged to integrate ABC during learning boosted performance on an explicit test of A\u2013C connections (children and adults) and protected from forgetting (children).<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Children and adults differed in when implicit A\u2013C connections were formed\u2014occurring primarily when told to separately encode BC (children) versus integrate (adults), respectively.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Adults used implicit A\u2013C connections to facilitate explicit judgments, while children did not. Our results suggest developmental differences in the learning conditions promoting memory\u2010to\u2010memory connections.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list><\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13371","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,17]],"date-time":"2023-01-17T09:08:41Z","timestamp":1673946521000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Learning strategy differentially impacts memory connections in children and adults"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Zahra","family":"Abolghasem","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tiffany H.\u2010T.","family":"Teng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elida","family":"Nexha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cherrie","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cindy S.","family":"Jean","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariana","family":"Castrillon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Che","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva V.","family":"Di Nallo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5433-8870","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margaret L.","family":"Schlichting","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Toronto  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022\u20100965(85)90075\u2010X"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.20870"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0278\u20107393.25.3.608"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jecp.2000.2607"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12163"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000996"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2019.101271"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2010.05.012"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jarmac.2017.01.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2013.849707"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2016.1171886"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/pag0000216"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797609359910"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118033"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2014.02.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028\u20103932(00)00108\u20101"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13825585.2020.1782827"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DeMaster D. 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