{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T05:49:21Z","timestamp":1789624161645,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]],"date-time":"2024-11-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730851200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["532517\u20102019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["532517\u20102019"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Developmental Science"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title><jats:p>Early childhood researchers frequently use learning materials and assessments involving pictures, across different cultures and contexts. However, there is variation in when and how children across cultures and contexts begin to understand and learn from pictures. While children growing up in high\u2010income contexts often have more experience with picture books and other kinds of two\u2010dimensional visual symbols, children growing up in low\u2010income, rural contexts in low\u2010 and middle\u2010income countries often have less experience with pictures and other kinds of visual symbols. The current research leverages variation in picture experience within a geographical region to investigate whether previous picture experience is related to toddlers\u2019 (1) performance on a picture\u2010based word learning task, and (2) referential understanding, controlling for maternal education, number of toys, caregiver talk, and caregiver play. One hundred and twenty\u2010eight toddlers in urban and rural western Kenya (<jats:italic>n\u00a0<\/jats:italic>=\u00a064 per area), who had varying amounts of picture experience, participated in a picture\u2010based word learning task. Preregistered analyses with the entire sample showed no relation between picture experience and performance on a picture\u2010based word learning task, or between picture experience and referential understanding. However, exploratory analyses found a positive association between picture experience and performance on the picture\u2010based word learning task in the urban sample, but not the rural sample. We found no association between toddlers\u2019 referential understanding and picture experience, in either sample. We discuss how these results may inform the efficacy of learning materials and the validity of assessments used with children from diverse global backgrounds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13579","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,7]],"date-time":"2024-11-07T05:59:32Z","timestamp":1730959172000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["The Development of Picture Comprehension Across Early Environments: Evidence From Urban and Rural Toddlers in Western Kenya"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"28","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0957-5962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rebecca","family":"Zhu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of California \u2013 Berkeley  Berkeley California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Helen O.","family":"Pitchik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Epidemiology School of Public Health University of California \u2013 Berkeley  Berkeley California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tabitha Nduku","family":"Kilonzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Education, RTI International  Nairobi Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jan","family":"Engelmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of California \u2013 Berkeley  Berkeley California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lia C.","family":"Fernald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Community Health Sciences School of Public Health University of California \u2013 Berkeley  Berkeley California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alison","family":"Gopnik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology University of California \u2013 Berkeley  Berkeley California USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13508"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1129231"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118963418.childpsy207"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Early Social Cognition in Three Cultural Contexts","volume":"76","author":"Callaghan T.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00412"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2011.587853"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12974"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/desc.13375"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpn.2013.11.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0236107"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(94)90063-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8721.01244"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00039"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fernald L. 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