{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T18:47:59Z","timestamp":1792176479057,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,18]],"date-time":"2021-01-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1610928000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001515","name":"Cure Kids","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["9518"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["9518"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001515","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Develop Med Child Neuro"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Aim<\/jats:title><jats:p>To examine the developmental outcomes of children born to opioid\u2010dependent females enrolled in methadone maintenance and identify pre\u2010 and postnatal factors that place these children at developmental risk.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method<\/jats:title><jats:p>Ninety\u2010nine methadone\u2010maintained females and their 100 infants (42 females, 58 males, mean gestational age 38.8wks) were recruited during pregnancy\/at birth and studied to age 2\u00a0years alongside a regionally representative comparison group of 108 non\u2010methadone\u2010maintained females and their 110 infants (62 females, 48 males, mean gestational age 39.2wks). Information about perinatal exposure was collected from medical records, maternal urine and infant meconium toxicological analysis, maternal interviews (at birth and at 18mo), and a home visit (at 18mo). At age 2\u00a0years, child neuromotor function, cognition, language, and emotional\/behavioral dysregulation were assessed.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Opioid\u2010exposed children achieved lower motor, cognitive, and language scores and had poorer self, emotional, eating\/feeding, and sensory processing regulation than unexposed children. After adjustment for maternal education and other substance use in pregnancy, between\u2010group differences in child motor, cognitive, and overall dysregulation remained. Postnatal parental and family factors explained a further 40% to 52% of between\u2010group differences in child outcomes.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Interpretation<\/jats:title><jats:p>These children and families are extremely high\u2010risk and need antenatal and postnatal support. Children exposed to opioids during pregnancy have pervasive developmental difficulties by age 2\u00a0years. These challenges are largely explained by adverse pregnancy and socio\u2010environmental exposures, emphasizing the importance of specialist prenatal care and postnatal intervention support.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:label\/><jats:p>\n<jats:boxed-text content-type=\"box\" position=\"anchor\"><jats:caption><jats:title>What this paper adds<\/jats:title><\/jats:caption><jats:p>\n<jats:list list-type=\"bullet\">\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Children born to opioid\u2010dependent females are at high risk of pervasive developmental problems.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>These problems span a range of functional domains, including motor, cognitive, language, and behavioral\/emotional dysregulation.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n\n<jats:list-item><jats:p>Contributing factors include other adverse pregnancy exposures, postnatal environmental factors, and the direct effects of prenatal opioid exposure.<\/jats:p><\/jats:list-item>\n<\/jats:list>\n<\/jats:p><\/jats:boxed-text>\n<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.14808","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,19]],"date-time":"2021-01-19T05:23:09Z","timestamp":1611033789000},"page":"1114-1122","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Prenatal methadone exposure and child developmental outcomes in 2\u2010year\u2010old children"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"63","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6384-3046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Terri A","family":"Levine","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Newborn Medicine Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women's Hospital Boston MA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alison","family":"Davie\u2010Gray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Champion Centre Burwood Hospital 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