{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T04:49:13Z","timestamp":1791866953175,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Wiley","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791763200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Eur J Dental Education"],"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots are increasingly used by dental students and faculty for literature review, coursework preparation, and scholarly writing. In restorative dentistry education, where evidence\u2010based decision\u2010making is fundamental, inaccurate AI\u2010generated citations may pose educational risks. This study evaluated the bibliographic reliability of AI\u2010generated references in restorative dentistry topics and examined their potential implications for dental education.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Five large language model (LLM)\u2013based chatbots were tested using ten standardised restorative dentistry prompts representing commonly assigned educational topics. Each chatbot generated 100 references (\n                      <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009500). References were manually verified using indexed databases and evaluated using the Reference Hallucination Score (RHS; range 0\u201311). Chatbot performance was compared using the Friedman test, followed by Dunn\u2013Bonferroni post hoc pairwise comparisons. Binary bibliographic error parameters were analysed using generalised linear mixed models, with chatbot type, prompt complexity, and their interaction as fixed effects and prompt as a random intercept (\u03b1\u2009=\u20090.05).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      A significant overall difference in RHS was observed among the evaluated AI chatbots (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), with post hoc analyses identifying significant differences between specific model pairs. ChatGPT\u20105.2 and Perplexity AI demonstrated the lowest hallucination severity, whereas Copilot and DeepSeek\u2010v3.2 demonstrated the highest. Prompt complexity did not significantly influence hallucination severity. Errors most frequently involved author names, journal titles, and DOIs.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>AI\u2010generated references in restorative dentistry demonstrated substantial variability in bibliographic accuracy across the evaluated AI systems. These inaccuracies may pose potential risks to evidence\u2010based learning and academic integrity, highlighting the importance of systematic reference verification and AI literacy in dental education.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/eje.70321","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T04:37:29Z","timestamp":1791866249000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Reference Hallucination in\n                    <scp>AI<\/scp>\n                    \u2010Assisted Restorative Dentistry Education: An Educational Risk Assessment Using the Reference Hallucination Score Framework"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8073-1222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Esra","family":"Yildirim Manav","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Restorative Dentistry Faculty of Dentistry, Lokman Hekim University  Ankara T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9513-0841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"S\u0131la Nur","family":"Usta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Endodontics G\u00fclhane Faculty of Dentistry, University of Health Sciences  Ankara T\u00fcrkiye"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","first-page":"248","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry: Current Applications and Future Perspectives","volume":"51","author":"Chen Y. W.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Quintessence International"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034520915714","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry: Chances and Challenges","volume":"99","author":"Schwendicke F.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Dental Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2025.105648","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry: Exploring Emerging Applications and Future Prospects","volume":"155","author":"Lee S. J.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2024.105105","article-title":"Validation of Artificial Intelligence Application for Dental Caries Diagnosis on Intraoral Bitewing and Periapical Radiographs","volume":"147","author":"Szab\u00f3 V.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1159\/000524167","article-title":"Machine Learning in the Diagnosis and Prognostic Prediction of Dental Caries: A Systematic Review","volume":"56","author":"Reyes L. T.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Caries Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","article-title":"High Rates of Fabricated and Inaccurate References in ChatGPT\u2010Generated Medical Content","volume":"15","author":"Bhattacharyya M.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","article-title":"Exploring the Boundaries of Reality: Investigating the Phenomenon of Artificial Intelligence Hallucination in Scientific Writing Through ChatGPT References","volume":"15","author":"Athaluri S. A.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0041-1731837","article-title":"Effectiveness of Virtual Reality and Interactive Simulators on Dental Education Outcomes: Systematic Review","volume":"16","author":"Moussa R.","year":"2022","journal-title":"European Journal of Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.52225\/narra.v3i1.103","article-title":"ChatGPT Applications in Medical, Dental, Pharmacy, and Public Health Education: A Descriptive Study Highlighting the Advantages and Limitations","volume":"3","author":"Sallam M.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Narra Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prosdent.2024.01.018","article-title":"ChatGPT Performance in Prosthodontics: Assessment of Accuracy and Repeatability in Answer Generation","volume":"131","author":"Freire Y.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Prosthetic Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_12_1","article-title":"Revolutionizing Dental Imaging: A Comprehensive Study on the Integration of Artificial Intelligence in Dental and Maxillofacial Radiology","volume":"15","author":"Iruvuri A. G.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/3571730","article-title":"Survey of Hallucination in Natural Language Generation","volume":"55","author":"Ji Z.","year":"2023","journal-title":"ACM Computing Surveys"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1906","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2020.acl-main.173","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics","author":"Maynez J.","year":"2020"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2196\/54345","article-title":"Reference Hallucination Score for Medical Artificial Intelligence Chatbots: Development and Usability Study","volume":"12","author":"Aljamaan F.","year":"2024","journal-title":"JMIR Medical Informatics"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2024.104938","article-title":"Accuracy and Consistency of Chatbots Versus Clinicians for Answering Pediatric Dentistry Questions: A Pilot Study","volume":"144","author":"Rokhshad R.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2025.105780","article-title":"Development of an Artificial Intelligence Model for Assisting Periodontal Therapy Decision\u2010Making: A Retrospective Longitudinal Cohort Study","volume":"159","author":"Rebeiz T.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034520969115","article-title":"Application of Artificial Intelligence in Dentistry","volume":"100","author":"Shan T.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Dental Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/frhs.2024.1368030","article-title":"Towards Evidence\u2010Based Practice 2.0: Leveraging Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare","volume":"4","author":"Nilsen P.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Frontiers in Health Services"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.53797\/aspen.v4i2.6.2024","article-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Academic Writing: A Literature Review","volume":"4","author":"Guo H.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian Pendidikan"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.12982\/OSR.2025.061","article-title":"Assessing the Applicability of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Fabrication and Plagiarism of Scientific Literature in the Field of Orthodontics","volume":"46","author":"Asiri S. N.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Oral Sciences Reports"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K.Shuster M.Komeili L.Adolphs S.Roller A.Szlam andJ.Weston \u201cLanguage models that seek for knowledge: modular search and generation for dialogue and prompt completion Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2022\u201d.","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2022.findings-emnlp.27"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_23_1","first-page":"1549","article-title":"Detecting Reference Errors in Scientific Literature With Large Language Models","volume":"2024","author":"Zhang T. M.","year":"2025","journal-title":"AMIA Annual Symposium Proceedings"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-024-05968-w","article-title":"Performance of Large Language Artificial Intelligence Models on Solving Restorative Dentistry and Endodontics Student Assessments","volume":"28","author":"K\u00fcnzle P.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clinical Oral Investigations"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"842","DOI":"10.1111\/jerd.13079","article-title":"Applications, Functions, and Accuracy of Artificial Intelligence in Restorative Dentistry: A Literature Review","volume":"35","author":"Tabatabaian F.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1740","DOI":"10.1111\/jerd.13447","article-title":"Evaluating the Accuracy, Reliability, Consistency, and Readability of Different Large Language Models in Restorative Dentistry","volume":"37","author":"Ozdemir Z. M.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdent.2025.105923","article-title":"Editorial Policies for Use and Acknowledgment of Artificial Intelligence in Dental Journals","volume":"161","author":"Queiroz A. B. L.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Dentistry"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Dental Education"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/eje.70321","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/eje.70321","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/eje.70321","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T04:37:41Z","timestamp":1791866261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/eje.70321"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]]},"references-count":26,"alternative-id":["10.1111\/eje.70321"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/eje.70321","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1396-5883","1600-0579"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1396-5883","type":"print"},{"value":"1600-0579","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2026-03-26","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-21","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-10-12","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"eje.70321"}}