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A plethora of neuroanatomical studies have shown the existence of dense, widespread, bidirectional and bilateral monosynaptic interconnections between the claustrum and most cortical areas. A rapidly growing body of experimental evidence points to the integrative role of claustrum in complex brain functions, from motor to cognitive. Here, we examined for the first time, the behaviour of the classical monoamine neurotransmitters dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin in the claustrum of the normal autopsied human brain and of patients who died with idiopathic Parkinson's disease (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ). We found in the normal claustrum substantial amounts of all three monoamine neurotransmitters, substantiating the existence of the respective brain stem afferents to the claustrum. In\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    , the levels of dopamine and noradrenaline were greatly reduced by 93 and 81%, respectively. Serotonin levels remained unchanged. We propose that by virtue of their projections to the claustrum, the brain stem dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin systems interact directly with the cortico\u2010claustro\u2010cortical information processing mechanisms, by\u2010passing their (parallel) routes via the basal ganglia\u2010thalamo\u2010cortical circuits. We suggest that loss of dopamine and noradrenaline in the\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    claustrum is critical in the aetiology of both the motor and the non\u2010motor symptoms of\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">PD<\/jats:styled-content>\n                    .\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13435","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,14]],"date-time":"2016-10-14T12:05:07Z","timestamp":1476446707000},"page":"192-197","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Dopamine and noradrenaline, but not serotonin, in the human claustrum are greatly reduced in patients with Parkinson's disease: possible functional implications"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"45","author":[{"given":"Harald H.","family":"Sitte","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Physiology and Pharmacology Institute of Pharmacology Medical University of Vienna Waehringerstrasse 13A A\u20101090 Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Pifl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Brain Research Medical University of Vienna Vienna Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ali H.","family":"Rajput","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Neurology Saskatchewan Movement Disorders Program Saskatoon Health Region University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon SK Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heide","family":"H\u00f6rtnagl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology Innsbruck Medical University Innsbruck Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junchao","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human Brain Laboratory Research Imaging Centre Centre for Addiction and Mental Health Toronto ON Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"George K.","family":"Lloyd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GKOL Inc. 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