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We addressed this question by tracking high\u2010resolution seasonal dynamics of a model system composed of host\n                    <jats:italic>Drosophila<\/jats:italic>\n                    flies and two parasitoid species attacking hosts at larval and pupal stages respectively. Both parasitoid species increased in abundance steadily during the spring. The pupal parasitoid declined in summer but resurged in autumn, whereas the larval parasitoid declined after a summer peak. The host population remained relatively stable after an initial spring increase. Modelling predicted that the system would collapse under constant cool environments due to excessive parasitism on hosts, whereas pupal parasitoids would be excluded under constant warmth. These predictions were validated by controlled laboratory mesocosm experiments. Life history assays clearly revealed that cool and warm seasons favour different parasitoid species: cooler temperatures resulted in higher mortality of immature larval parasitoids due to host immunity, whereas warmer temperatures narrowed the host exposure window and increased mortality of immature pupal parasitoids. These results demonstrate that seasonal temperature fluctuation maintains a fragile multi\u2010trophic motif by preventing resource overexploitation and competitive exclusion, highlighting that intra\u2010annual periodic forcing sustains biodiversity.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.70461","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T00:31:11Z","timestamp":1791419471000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Seasonal Temperature Fluctuation Enables Persistence of a Model Multi\u2010Trophic System"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5379-7714","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tiantian","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, School of Life Sciences Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1046-6878","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ministry of Education's Key Laboratory of Poyang Lake Wetland and Watershed Research, School of Geography and Environment Jiangxi Normal University  Nanchang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8435-0897","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jinlin","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, School of Life Sciences Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4664-2231","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minghui","family":"Fei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Forestry Biosecurity, College of Plant Protection Nanjing Agricultural University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4227-7935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey A.","family":"Harvey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Agricultural and Forestry Biosecurity, College of Plant Protection Nanjing Agricultural University  Nanjing China"},{"name":"Department of Terrestrial Ecology Netherlands Institute of Ecology  Wageningen the Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7935-6111","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Owen T.","family":"Lewis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Oxford  Oxfordshire UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0471-7917","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dongbo","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences University of Leeds  Leeds UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0619-3507","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nuo","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, School of Life Sciences Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1841-9032","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chi","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, School of Life Sciences Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0748-8048","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shucun","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, School of Life Sciences Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9312-1095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xinqiang","family":"Xi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ecology, School of Life Sciences Nanjing University  Nanjing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11641","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0904512106","article-title":"Functional Tradeoffs Determine Species Coexistence via the Storage Effect","volume":"106","author":"Angert A. 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