{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:47:26Z","timestamp":1792000046936,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":13,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790812800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000270","name":"Natural Environment Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NE\/X000540\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NE\/X000540\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000270","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Ecology Letters"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>ABSTRACT<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    Coinfections by multiple parasite species are widespread and often modify disease outcomes. To what degree other forms of ecological complexity, such as environmental change, influence the impacts of coinfecting parasites on disease remains unclear. We exposed nematodes (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">\n                      <jats:italic>Caenorhabditis elegans<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:styled-content>\n                    ) to naturally coinfecting parasites (\n                    <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">\n                      <jats:italic>Leucobacter celer<\/jats:italic>\n                    <\/jats:styled-content>\n                    and\n                    <jats:italic>Leucobacter musarum<\/jats:italic>\n                    ) at temperatures across the host's thermal range. While we found that host mortality varied widely with temperature during single infections, coinfections buffered hosts against temperature\u2010mediated variation via ongoing parasite competition. We extended our experiments with mathematical models indicating that changing virulence, rather than transmission, most plausibly underpins temperature\u2010dependent host mortality. At moderate, but not extreme temperatures, we found coinfection continued to dampen mortality outcomes due to another source of host variation, genotypic susceptibility. Coinfection may provide a stabilizing effect on disease in a warming world\u2014but this effect can falter when hosts are faced with multiple stressors.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.70464","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:05:17Z","timestamp":1791997517000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Coinfections Dampen the Effects of Temperature on Host\u2013Parasite Interactions"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2396-6778","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"I.","family":"Will","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Oxford  Oxford UK"},{"name":"Department of Zoology University of British Columbia  Vancouver Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3212-3294","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C. A.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Oxford  Oxford UK"},{"name":"Department of Mathematical Sciences University of Bath  Bath UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0615-6578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"T. E.","family":"Hector","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Oxford  Oxford UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1393-9220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K. C.","family":"King","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Oxford  Oxford UK"},{"name":"Department of Zoology University of British Columbia  Vancouver Canada"},{"name":"Department of Microbiology &amp; Immunology University of British Columbia  Vancouver Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/ve\/veab017","article-title":"Increasing Temperature Alters the Within\u2010Host Competition of Viral Strains and Influences Virus Genetic Variability","volume":"7","author":"Alcaide C.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virus Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12076","article-title":"Multiple Infections and the Evolution of Virulence","volume":"16","author":"Alizon S.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2015.02.009","article-title":"Adaptive Virulence Evolution: The Good Old Fitness\u2010Based Approach","volume":"30","author":"Alizon S.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1822","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M109.057323","article-title":"The \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans\n                   Germ Line Regulates Distinct Signaling Pathways to Control Lifespan and Innate Immunity","volume":"285","author":"Alper S.","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Biological Chemistry"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_6_1","first-page":"1053","article-title":"Directly Transmitted Infections Diseases: Control by Vaccination","volume":"215","author":"Anderson R. M.","year":"1982","journal-title":"Science (1979)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1002\/evl3.19","article-title":"Friendly Foes: The Evolution of Host Protection by a Parasite","volume":"1","author":"Ashby B.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Evolution Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(11)70241-9","article-title":"Prevalence and Implications of Multiple\u2010Strain Infections","volume":"11","author":"Balmer O.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Infectious Diseases"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-011-2014-0","article-title":"Parasitized Snails Take the Heat: A Case of Host Manipulation?","volume":"167","author":"Bates A. E.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3882","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.15998","article-title":"A Globally Ubiquitous Symbiont Can Drive Experimental Host Evolution","volume":"30","author":"Bates K. A.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Molecular Ecology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.01.006","article-title":"Temperature Dependence of Cell Division Timing Accounts for a Shift in the Thermal Limits of C. elegans and C. briggsae","volume":"10","author":"Begasse M. L.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Reports"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12859-024-05817-3","article-title":"Gcplyr: An R Package for Microbial Growth Curve Data Analysis","volume":"25","author":"Blazanin M.","year":"2024","journal-title":"BMC Bioinformatics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_13_1","first-page":"378","article-title":"glmmTMB Balances Speed and Flexibility Among Packages for Zero\u2010Inflated Generalized Linear Mixed Modeling","volume":"9","author":"Brooks M. E.","year":"2017","journal-title":"R Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1890\/03-9000","article-title":"Toward A Metabolic Theory of Ecology","volume":"85","author":"Brown J. H.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2015.02.005","article-title":"Resource Limitation Alters the Consequences of Co\u2010Infection for Both Hosts and Parasites","volume":"45","author":"Budischak S. A.","year":"2015","journal-title":"International Journal for Parasitology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1752-4571.2007.00003.x","article-title":"Invasion Thresholds and the Evolution of Nonequilibrium Virulence","volume":"1","author":"Bull J. J.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Evolutionary Applications"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v100.i05","article-title":"Bayesian Item Response Modeling in R With Brms and Stan","volume":"100","author":"B\u00fcrkner P. C.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37217-y","article-title":"A Mycobacterial Disease Is Associated With the Silent Mass Mortality of the Pen Shell Pinna Nobilis Along the Tyrrhenian Coastline of Italy","volume":"9","author":"Carella F.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-022-04788-w","article-title":"Climate Change Increases Cross\u2010Species Viral Transmission Risk","volume":"607","author":"Carlson C. J.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3063","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25053063","article-title":"Evaluating Temperature Effects on Bluetongue Virus Serotype 10 and 17 Coinfection in Culicoides Sonorensis","volume":"25","author":"Carpenter M.","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Molecular Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3977","DOI":"10.1099\/ijsem.0.000523","article-title":"Leucobacter Musarum Subsp. Musarum sp. Nov., Subsp. Nov., Leucobacter Musarum Subsp. Japonicus Subsp. Nov., and \n                     Leucobacter celer\n                   Subsp. Astrifaciens Subsp. Nov., Three Nematopathogenic Bacteria Isolated From Caenorhabditis, With an Emended Description of \n                     Leucobacter celer","volume":"65","author":"Clark L. C.","year":"2015","journal-title":"International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.13239","article-title":"Impacts of Thermal Mismatches on Chytrid Fungus Batrachochytrium Dendrobatidis Prevalence Are Moderated by Life Stage, Body Size, Elevation and Latitude","volume":"22","author":"Cohen J. M.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_23_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Divergent Impacts of Warming Weather on Wildlife Disease Risk Across Climates","volume":"370","author":"Cohen J. M.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science (1979)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12720","article-title":"The Thermal Mismatch Hypothesis Explains Host Susceptibility to an Emerging Infectious Disease","volume":"20","author":"Cohen J. M.","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.0138","article-title":"Parasite Virulence When the Infection Reduces the Host Immune Response","volume":"277","author":"Cornet S.","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1017\/S003118201500092X","article-title":"The Adaptive Evolution of Virulence: A Review of Theoretical Predictions and Empirical Tests","volume":"143","author":"Cressler C. E.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2024.102558","article-title":"Temperature Structuring of Microbial Communities on a Global Scale","volume":"82","author":"Dal Bello M.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Microbiology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7489","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0710909105","article-title":"Virulence\u2010Transmission Trade\u2010Offs and Population Divergence in Virulence in a Naturally Occurring Butterfly Parasite","volume":"105","author":"De Roode J. C.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/s12862-024-02340-0","article-title":"Inferring the Energy Cost of Resistance to Parasitic Infection and Its Link to a Trade\u2010Off","volume":"25","author":"Douhard F.","year":"2025","journal-title":"BMC Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2146","DOI":"10.1038\/s41396-021-00911-3","article-title":"Host Genotype and Genetic Diversity Shape the Evolution of a Novel Bacterial Infection","volume":"15","author":"Ekroth A. K. E.","year":"2021","journal-title":"ISME Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_31_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Parasite Responses to Resource Provisioning Can Be Altered by Within\u2010Host Co\u2010Infection Interactions","volume":"292","author":"Erazo D.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2004.07.001","article-title":"Influence of Temperature Preferences of Two Paecilomyces Fumosoroseus Lineages on Their Co\u2010Infection Pattern","volume":"87","author":"Fargues J.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Invertebrate Pathology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.61.1.243"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1414894112","article-title":"Recent Shifts in the Occurrence, Cause, and Magnitude of Animal Mass Mortality Events","volume":"112","author":"Fey S. B.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_35_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Microbe\u2010Mediated Host Defence Drives the Evolution of Reduced Pathogen Virulence","volume":"7","author":"Ford S. A.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1111\/oik.07813","article-title":"Temperature and Multiple Parasites Combine to Alter Host Community Structure","volume":"130","author":"Friesen O.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oikos"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"744","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1705067115","article-title":"Host and Parasite Thermal Ecology Jointly Determine the Effect of Climate Warming on Epidemic Dynamics","volume":"115","author":"Gehman A. L. M.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0145925","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0145925","article-title":"Experience Modulates the Reproductive Response to Heat Stress in \n                     C. elegans\n                   via Multiple Physiological Processes","volume":"10","author":"Gouv\u00eaa D. Y.","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0707221105","article-title":"Ecological Rules Governing Helminth\u2010Microparasite Coinfection","volume":"105","author":"Graham A. L.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0028624","DOI":"10.1128\/aem.00286-24","article-title":"Warming Alters Life\u2010History Traits and Competition in a Phage Community","volume":"90","author":"Greenrod S. T. E.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Applied and Environmental Microbiology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icm057","article-title":"Parasitic Castration: A Perspective From a Model of Dynamic Energy Budgets","volume":"47","author":"Hall S. R.","year":"2007","journal-title":"Integrative and Comparative Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1086\/600086","article-title":"Resource Ecology of Virulence in a Planktonic Host\u2010Parasite System: An Explanation Using Dynamic Energy Budgets","volume":"174","author":"Hall S. R.","year":"2009","journal-title":"American Naturalist"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-06176-8","article-title":"Coinfection Frequency in Water Flea Populations Is a Mere Reflection of Parasite Diversity","volume":"7","author":"Halle S.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Communications Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2014.0302","article-title":"Crossing the Scale From Within\u2010Host Infection Dynamics to Between\u2010Host Transmission Fitness: A Discussion of Current Assumptions and Knowledge","volume":"370","author":"Handel A.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2022.03.011","article-title":"Symbiosis and Host Responses to Heating","volume":"37","author":"Hector T. E.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hector T. E. J. M.Kreiner J. C.Forward et\u00a0al.2025.\u201cRising Temperatures Favour Parasite Virulence and Parallel Molecular Evolution Following a Host Jump.\u201dbioRxiv: the preprint server for biology 2025.01.14.632940.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.01.14.632940"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3893","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14713","article-title":"Pathogen Exposure Disrupts an Organism's Ability to Cope With Thermal Stress","volume":"25","author":"Hector T. E.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3491","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.4983","article-title":"The Effects of \n                     Bacillus subtilis\n                   on \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans\n                   Fitness After Heat Stress","volume":"9","author":"Hoang K. L.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008790","article-title":"Coinfections in Wildlife: Focus on a Neglected Aspect of Infectious Disease Epidemiology","volume":"16","author":"Hoarau A. O. G.","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2013.08.060","article-title":"Two Leucobacter Strains Exert Complementary Virulence on Caenorhabditis Including Death by Worm\u2010Star Formation","volume":"23","author":"Hodgkin J.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_51_1","first-page":"1142","article-title":"Regulation of Aging and Age\u2010Related Disease by DAF\u201016 and Heat\u2010Shock Factor","volume":"300","author":"Hsu A. L.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science (1979)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cois.2024.101208","article-title":"Clines of Resistance to Parasitoids: The Multifarious Effects of Temperature on Defensive Symbioses in Insects","volume":"64","author":"Hudson C. M.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Insect Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5703","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0810850106","article-title":"Spite and Virulence in the Bacterium \n                     Pseudomonas aeruginosa","volume":"106","author":"Inglis R. F.","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-023-05481-z","article-title":"Temperature and Intraspecific Variation Affect Host\u2013Parasite Interactions","volume":"204","author":"Ismail S.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74358-5","article-title":"Range Expansion of Muskox Lungworms Track Rapid Arctic Warming: Implications for Geographic Colonization Under Climate Forcing","volume":"10","author":"Kafle P.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2015.259","article-title":"Rapid Evolution of Microbe\u2010Mediated Protection Against Pathogens in a Worm Host","volume":"10","author":"King K. C.","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.2004608","article-title":"Empirical Evidence That Metabolic Theory Describes the Temperature Dependency of Within\u2010Host Parasite Dynamics","volume":"16","author":"Kirk D.","year":"2018","journal-title":"PLoS Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.13786","article-title":"Scaling Effects of Temperature on Parasitism From Individuals to Populations","volume":"91","author":"Kirk D.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Animal Ecology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2012.0588","article-title":"Generating Super\u2010Shedders: Co\u2010Infection Increases Bacterial Load and Egg Production of a Gastrointestinal Helminth","volume":"10","author":"Lass S.","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Society, Interface"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2017.2610","article-title":"Predicting the Effects of Parasite Co\u2010Infection Across Species Boundaries","volume":"285","author":"Lello J.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3110","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.16060","article-title":"Global Maps of Soil Temperature","volume":"28","author":"Lembrechts J. J.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1021\/acssynbio.9b00099","article-title":"Machine Learning Applied to Predicting Microorganism Growth Temperatures and Enzyme Catalytic Optima","volume":"8","author":"Li G.","year":"2019","journal-title":"ACS Synthetic Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.16429","article-title":"Experimental Temperatures Shape Host Microbiome Diversity and Composition","volume":"29","author":"Li J.","year":"2022","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.70087","article-title":"Warming During Different Life Stages Has Distinct Impacts on Host Resistance Ecology and Evolution","volume":"28","author":"Li J.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2005.07.004","article-title":"Should We Expect Population Thresholds for Wildlife Disease?","volume":"20","author":"Lloyd\u2010Smith J. O.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.114.174110","article-title":"Cuticle Integrity and Biogenic Amine Synthesis in \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans\n                   Require the Cofactor Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)","volume":"200","author":"Loer C. M.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_67_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Interactions Among Bacterial Strains and Fluke Genotypes Shape Virulence of Co\u2010Infection","volume":"282","author":"Louhi K. R.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.00772","article-title":"Ggeffects: Tidy Data Frames of Marginal Effects From Regression Models","volume":"3","author":"L\u00fcdecke D.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Open Source Software"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.21105\/joss.03139","article-title":"Performance: An R Package for Assessment, Comparison and Testing of Statistical Models","volume":"6","author":"L\u00fcdecke D.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Open Source Software"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1321341","article-title":"The Effects of Temperature on Prevalence of Facultative Insect Heritable Symbionts Across Spatial and Seasonal Scales","volume":"14","author":"Martins M.","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontiers in Microbiology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2970","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1501193113","article-title":"Host Immunity Shapes the Impact of Climate Changes on the Dynamics of Parasite Infections","volume":"113","author":"Mignatti A.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1534\/genetics.107.083923","article-title":"DAF\u201016\u2010Dependent Suppression of Immunity During Reproduction in \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans","volume":"178","author":"Miyata S.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Genetics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2020.0360","article-title":"Forecasting Parasite Sharing Under Climate Change","volume":"376","author":"Morales\u2010Castilla I.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2017537118","article-title":"Interventions Can Shift the Thermal Optimum for Parasitic Disease Transmission","volume":"118","author":"Nguyen K. H.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2014.04.011","article-title":"Distribution, Diversity and Drivers of Blood\u2010Borne Parasite Co\u2010Infections in Alaskan Bird Populations","volume":"44","author":"Oakgrove K. S.","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal for Parasitology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182023001130","article-title":"Increased Virulence due to Multiple Infection in Daphnia Leads to Limited Growth in 1 of 2 Co\u2010Infecting Microsporidian Parasites","volume":"151","author":"O'Keeffe F. E.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/g3journal\/jkad056","article-title":"Isolation and Molecular Identification of Nematode Surface Mutants With Resistance to Bacterial Pathogens","volume":"13","author":"O'Rourke D.","year":"2023","journal-title":"G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0107250","article-title":"Caenorhabditis elegans\n                   Bacterial Pathogen Resistant Bus\u20104 Mutants Produce Altered Mucins","volume":"9","author":"Parsons L. M.","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.12244","article-title":"Experimental Warming Drives a Seasonal Shift in the Timing of Host\u2010Parasite Dynamics With Consequences for Disease Risk","volume":"17","author":"Paull S. H.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2006.11.005","article-title":"Emphasizing the Ecology in Parasite Community Ecology","volume":"22","author":"Pedersen A. B.","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0112377","article-title":"Natural Variants of \n                     C. elegans\n                   Demonstrate Defects in Both Sperm Function and Oogenesis at Elevated Temperatures","volume":"9","author":"Petrella L. N.","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12915-021-01008-1","article-title":"Chronic Temperature Stress Inhibits Reproduction and Disrupts Endocytosis via Chaperone Titration in \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans","volume":"19","author":"Plagens R. N.","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMC Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2901","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.87.8.2901","article-title":"Genes That Can Be Mutated to Unmask Hidden Antigenic Determinants in the Cuticle of the Nematode \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans","volume":"87","author":"Politz S. M.","year":"1990","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_84_1","unstructured":"R Core Team.2022.\u201cR: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.\u201d"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.70104","article-title":"On the Cause and Consequences of Coinfection: A General Mechanistic Framework of Within\u2010Host Parasite Competition","volume":"28","author":"Ramesh A.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1111\/ele.13107","article-title":"The Complex Drivers of Thermal Acclimation and Breadth in Ectotherms","volume":"21","author":"Rohr J. R.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000938","article-title":"Understanding How Temperature Shifts Could Impact Infectious Disease","volume":"18","author":"Rohr J. R.","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_88_1","unstructured":"RStudio Team.2020.\u201cRStudio: Integrated Development for R.\u201d"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4284","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.15163","article-title":"Unchartered Waters: Climate Change Likely to Intensify Infectious Disease Outbreaks Causing Mass Mortality Events in Marine Mammals","volume":"26","author":"Sanderson C. E.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/ecy.2979","article-title":"A Meta\u2010Analysis Reveals Temperature, Dose, Life Stage, and Taxonomy Influence Host Susceptibility to a Fungal Parasite","volume":"101","author":"Sauer E. L.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1012964","article-title":"Dissecting Transmission to Understand Parasite Evolution","volume":"21","author":"Silva L. M.","year":"2025","journal-title":"PLoS Pathogens"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2026.07.021","article-title":"Transmission Heterogeneity Emerges From Uncoupled Parasite Shedding and Spreading","volume":"36","author":"Silva L. M.","year":"2026","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13092","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0604050103","article-title":"Heat\u2010Shock Transcription Factor (HSF)\u20101 Pathway Required for \n                     Caenorhabditis elegans\n                   Immunity","volume":"103","author":"Singh V.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2024.108106","article-title":"Thermal Ecology Shapes Disease Outcomes of Entomopathogenic Fungi Infecting Warm\u2010Adapted Insects","volume":"204","author":"Slowik A. R.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Invertebrate Pathology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/ismejo\/wraf071","article-title":"Within\u2010Host Competition Causes Pathogen Molecular Evolution and Perpetual Microbiota Dysbiosis","volume":"19","author":"Stevens E. J.","year":"2025","journal-title":"ISME Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stiernagle T.2006.\u201cMaintenance ofC. elegans.\u201dWormBook 1\u201311.","DOI":"10.1895\/wormbook.1.101.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3230","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-47265-w","article-title":"Estimating the Effects of Temperature on Transmission of the Human Malaria Parasite, Plasmodium Falciparum","volume":"15","author":"Suh E.","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6975","article-title":"Co\u2010Infection Alters Population Dynamics of Infectious Disease","volume":"6","author":"Susi H.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011777","article-title":"C. elegans\n                   Germline\u2010Deficient Mutants Respond to Pathogen Infection Using Shared and Distinct Mechanisms","volume":"5","author":"Tekippe M.","year":"2010","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182008000395","article-title":"Parasite Interactions in Natural Populations: Insights From Longitudinal Data","volume":"135","author":"Telfer S.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_101_1","first-page":"243","article-title":"Species Interactions in a Parasite Community Drive Infection Risk in a Wildlife Population","volume":"330","author":"Telfer S.","year":"2010","journal-title":"Science (1979)"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1461-0248.2003.00414.x","article-title":"Mixed Infections and Insect\u2013Pathogen Interactions","volume":"6","author":"Thomas M. B.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ecology Letters"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tplants.2015.10.014","article-title":"Evolutionary and Epidemiological Implications of Multiple Infection in Plants","volume":"21","author":"Tollenaere C.","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends in Plant Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2013.2612","article-title":"Increased Temperature Variation Poses a Greater Risk to Species Than Climate Warming","volume":"281","author":"Vasseur D. A.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2018.01670","article-title":"Role of Temperature and Coinfection in Mediating Pathogen Life\u2010History Traits","volume":"871","author":"Vaumourin E.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Plant Science"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0009548","article-title":"Microbes Increase Thermal Sensitivity in the Mosquito \n                     Aedes aegypti\n                  , With the Potential to Change Disease Distributions","volume":"15","author":"Ware\u2010Gilmore F.","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24277-4","volume-title":"ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis","author":"Wickham H.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/mec.70124","article-title":"Host Transcriptomics Reveal Reduction in Defence\u2010Reproduction Trade\u2010Offs During Coinfection","volume":"34","author":"Will I.","year":"2025","journal-title":"Molecular Ecology"}],"container-title":["Ecology Letters"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/ele.70464","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/ele.70464","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/ele.70464","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T17:05:32Z","timestamp":1791997532000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/ele.70464"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/ele.70464"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/ele.70464","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1461-023X","1461-0248"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1461-023X","type":"print"},{"value":"1461-0248","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-12-12","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-09-22","order":2,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2026-10-14","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}],"article-number":"e70464"}}