{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T21:44:40Z","timestamp":1790372680206,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":125,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]],"date-time":"2023-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702857600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000024","name":"Canadian Institutes of Health Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PJT 461929"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PJT 461929"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000024","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Epilepsia"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>The devastating developmental and epileptic encephalopathy of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome (IESS) has numerous causes, including, but not limited to, brain injury, metabolic, and genetic conditions. Given the stereotyped electrophysiologic, age\u2010dependent, and clinical findings, there likely exists one or more final common pathways in the development of IESS. The identity of this final common pathway is unknown, but it may represent a novel therapeutic target for infantile spasms. Previous research on IESS has focused largely on identifying the neuroanatomic substrate using specialized neuroimaging techniques and cerebrospinal fluid analysis in human patients. Over the past three decades, several animal models of IESS were created with an aim to interrogate the underlying pathogenesis of IESS, to identify novel therapeutic targets, and to test various treatments. Each of these models have been successful at recapitulating multiple aspects of the human IESS condition. These animal models have implicated several different molecular pathways in the development of infantile spasms. In this review we outline the progress that has been made thus far using these animal models and discuss future directions to help researchers identify novel treatments for drug\u2010resistant IESS.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17841","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,1]],"date-time":"2023-12-01T03:24:15Z","timestamp":1701401055000},"page":"266-280","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Mechanisms of infantile epileptic spasms syndrome: What\u00a0have we learned from animal models?"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"65","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5118-3992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andy Cheuk\u2010Him","family":"Ng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anamika","family":"Choudhary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karlene T.","family":"Barrett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cezar","family":"Gavrilovici","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Morris H.","family":"Scantlebury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Neurosciences Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary  Calgary Alberta Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_17_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17239"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab162"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13709"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2011.03127.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pediatrneurol.2019.11.016"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/med\/9780199746545.003.0021"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a022707"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/WNP.0000000000000496"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7742(02)49023-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_11_1","article-title":"Infantile spasms: an update on pre\u2010clinical models and EEG mechanisms","volume":"7","author":"Janicot R","year":"2020","journal-title":"Children (Basel)"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21082"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2007.01377.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1995.tb00977.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4886(84)90001-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp107"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.3007231"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12280"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2010.02605.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12561"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2021.135713"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2020.107578"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00250-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.743726"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.942582"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1998.tb01413.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2015.04.019"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_28_1","volume-title":"Physiology, NMDA receptor","author":"Jewett BE","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24073"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2999(82)90273-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-3806(92)90178-Y"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(84)90288-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-3806(98)00193-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2020.107624"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awy304"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.14581\/jer.19017"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2018.07.052"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-00688-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.WNP.0000149893.12678.44"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-008-0109-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2008.167635"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2005.01007.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2008.04.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13344"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17470"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12976"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.679960"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddu199"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddp318"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1994.tb11894.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_51_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/mrdd.20164"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e31819d9076"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24749"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(75)90343-8"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.14529"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-019-02061-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_57_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2011.03.021"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16975"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2011.03220.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_60_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13325"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_61_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.10283"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.16495"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.1977.tb10721.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0057445"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2016.11.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/19336918.2014.994919"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/org.4.2.5852"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_68_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0572-22.2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13045-020-00990-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_70_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00052"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0896-6273(95)90216-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20080281"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_73_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2009.02499.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26383"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.34.1.102"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-8994(91)90028-J"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410310212"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410270408"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2005.05205.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-8994(94)90060-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.M079251"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2022.103833"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_83_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-6989(78)80065-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01254932"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0013-9580.2004.05001.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1973.00490190028002"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(97)00168-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1955.18.2.130"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_89_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.123.3189.223"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1955.184.1.202"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_91_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00243215"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_92_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/345347a0"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/19336950.2018.1539611"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_94_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0140324"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00127.2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_96_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2132"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_97_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.109.5.780"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_98_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2018.01.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_99_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1194\/jlr.R048975"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_100_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcab189"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_101_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2015.08.005"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_102_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2018.09.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_103_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.158521"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_104_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1985.tb05678.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_105_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s007020170081"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_106_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0887-8994(95)00121-U"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_107_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-3806(91)90118-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_108_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.66"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_109_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1203\/01.PDR.0000112105.33521.DC"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_110_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410310505"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_111_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1065358"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_112_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0045347"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_113_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1167.2011.03357.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_114_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eplepsyres.2015.09.014"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_115_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2023.137431"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_116_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-9877(95)90235-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_117_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1515\/REVNEURO.1993.4.4.321"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_118_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2431-12-108"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_119_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1954"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_120_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2008.118"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_121_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00010.2007"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_122_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0915-09.2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_123_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2021.105329"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_124_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13434"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_125_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-017-2282-0"},{"key":"e_1_2_17_126_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2015.12.014"}],"container-title":["Epilepsia"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/epi.17841","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,5]],"date-time":"2024-07-05T15:36:20Z","timestamp":1720193780000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/epi.17841"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]]},"references-count":125,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,2]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/epi.17841"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/epi.17841","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0013-9580","1528-1167"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0013-9580","type":"print"},{"value":"1528-1167","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2023-10-02","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-11-28","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-12-18","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}