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There is also a broad consensus that blooms are increasing with global warming, but the impacts of other concomitant environmental changes, such as an increase in extreme rainfall events, may affect this response. One of the potential effects of high rainfall events on phytoplankton communities is greater loss of biomass through hydraulic flushing. Here we used a shallow lake mesocosm experiment to test the combined effects of: warming (ambient vs. +4\u00b0C increase), high rainfall (flushing) events (no events vs. seasonal events) and nutrient loading (eutrophic vs. hypertrophic) on total phytoplankton chlorophyll\u2010<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic> and cyanobacterial abundance and composition. Our hypotheses were that: (a) total phytoplankton and cyanobacterial abundance would be higher in heated mesocosms; (b) the stimulatory effects of warming on cyanobacterial abundance would be enhanced in higher nutrient mesocosms, resulting in a synergistic interaction; (c) the recovery of biomass from flushing induced losses would be quicker in heated and nutrient\u2010enriched treatments, and during the growing season. The results supported the first and, in part, the third hypotheses: total phytoplankton and cyanobacterial abundance increased in heated mesocosms with an increase in common bloom\u2010forming taxa\u2014<jats:italic>Microcystis<\/jats:italic> spp. and <jats:italic>Dolichospermum<\/jats:italic> spp. Recovery from flushing was slowest in the winter, but unaffected by warming or higher nutrient loading. Contrary to the second hypothesis, an antagonistic interaction between warming and nutrient enrichment was detected for both cyanobacteria and chlorophyll\u2010<jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic> demonstrating that ecological surprises can occur, dependent on the environmental context. While this study highlights the clear need to mitigate against global warming, oversimplification of global change effects on cyanobacteria should be avoided; stressor gradients and seasonal effects should be considered as important factors shaping the response.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.14701","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,16]],"date-time":"2019-05-16T18:49:05Z","timestamp":1558032545000},"page":"3365-3380","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":146,"title":["Response of cyanobacteria and phytoplankton abundance to warming, extreme rainfall events and nutrient enrichment"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"25","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3723-2361","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica","family":"Richardson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology Lancaster Environment Centre Lancaster UK"},{"name":"Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences University of Stirling Stirling UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2028-4843","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heidrun","family":"Feuchtmayr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology Lancaster Environment Centre Lancaster UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claire","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mathematics and Statistics University of Glasgow Glasgow UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter D.","family":"Hunter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences University of Stirling Stirling UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen C.","family":"Maberly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology Lancaster Environment Centre Lancaster UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Laurence","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology Penicuik UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4319\/lo.2013.58.5.1736"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2008.10.008"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","unstructured":"Brierley B. 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