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Fire\u2010adapted forests can be vulnerable to ecosystem conversion under shortening fire\u2010return intervals. To evaluate the impacts of fire regime change, we contrasted\n                    <jats:italic>Eucalyptus<\/jats:italic>\n                    forests that retained canopy cover under tolerable regimes (reference forests) with alternative states of markedly reduced canopy. These alternative states established following short\u2010interval wildfires and have persisted through subsequent fires. Alternative states were dominated by more uniform distributions of small trees (&lt;\u200920\u2009cm diameter) than reference states, with 97% fewer large trees (&gt;\u200920\u2009cm diameter). These changes in structure translated into declines in several key ecosystem functions. The loss of large, hollow\u2010forming trees and limited\n                    <jats:italic>Eucalyptus<\/jats:italic>\n                    regeneration indicate long\u2010term constraints on habitat availability for hollow\u2010dependent fauna. Coarse woody debris mass was 38% lower in alternative states, indicating decreased resources for detritivores, fungi, and ground\u2010dwelling mammals. Aboveground carbon stocks were reduced by 59%, with a much higher proportion (98%) stored in small trees than reference states (20%). Lower fire tolerance of small trees suggests a greater vulnerability of carbon stocks to subsequent fires in alternative states compared to reference states. These findings highlight the long\u2010term ecological consequences of altered fire regimes. In addition, emphasising the management and restoration of forest structural integrity is essential to maintain ecosystem functions in fire\u2010prone landscapes that are increasingly vulnerable under changing climates.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.70895","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]],"date-time":"2026-05-05T10:18:08Z","timestamp":1777976288000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Characterising Ecosystem Composition, Structure and Function of Alternative Stable States in Temperate Forests of South\u2010Eastern Australia"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7122-2995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aaron E.","family":"Heap","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"FLARE Wildfire Research Group, School of Agriculture, Food &amp; Ecosystem Sciences The University of Melbourne  Melbourne Victoria Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom A.","family":"Fairman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FLARE Wildfire Research Group, School of Agriculture, Food &amp; Ecosystem Sciences The University of Melbourne  Melbourne Victoria Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Trent D.","family":"Penman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FLARE Wildfire Research Group, School of Agriculture, Food &amp; Ecosystem Sciences The University of Melbourne  Melbourne Victoria Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lauren T.","family":"Bennett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"FLARE Wildfire Research Group, School of Agriculture, Food &amp; Ecosystem Sciences The University of Melbourne  Melbourne Victoria Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s43247\u2010020\u201000065\u20108"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2012.11.039"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","volume-title":"Permutational Multivariate Analysis of Variance","author":"Anderson M. 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