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Unlike direct releases, however, indirect NO\n                    <jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub>\n                    emissions remain poorly understood and inadequately quantified. Here, by synthesizing available observations across global terrestrial ecosystems, we show that soil moisture and pH strongly affect the ratio of annual background NO to nitrous oxide (N\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O) emissions (), with a critical threshold at 46% water\u2010filled soil pore space. Combining soil moisture\u2010stratified  modeled by machine learning with known indirect N\n                    <jats:sub>2<\/jats:sub>\n                    O emission factors, global indirect NO\n                    <jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub>\n                    emission factors () are derived, yielding an aggregated median of 1.59% (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.45%\u20132.41%) and significantly higher (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.01) disaggregated values of 1.77% (95% CI: 1.49%\u20132.61%) for wet climates () than those of 0.89% (95% CI: 0.45%\u20131.28%) for dry climates (). We further estimate that the global indirect NO\n                    <jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub>\n                    emissions resulting from atmospheric deposition of nitrogen released by all anthropogenic sources amounted to approximately 886 (95% CI: 314\u20131639) Gg\u2009N\u2009year\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    (1 Gg\u2009=\u200910\n                    <jats:sup>9<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u2009g) in 2015, with fertilization, animal husbandry, and other human activities contributing about 25%, 26%, and 49%, respectively. Crucially, without soil moisture stratification, the global indirect NO\n                    <jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub>\n                    emissions would be underestimated by approximately 16% (\n                    <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                    \u2009&lt;\u20090.001), while the associated uncertainty would be about 1.5 times as large. Our novel \u2010based framework provides a robust approach for quantifying indirect NO\n                    <jats:sub>x<\/jats:sub>\n                    emissions in regional, national and global inventories, thereby supporting targeted strategies to mitigate air pollution and climate change.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.71048","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]],"date-time":"2026-08-13T07:26:49Z","timestamp":1786606009000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Closing Knowledge Gaps on Global Budget of Nitrogen Oxides (\n                    <scp>\n                      NO\n                      <sub>x<\/sub>\n                    <\/scp>\n                    ) by Quantifying Indirect Emissions From Anthropogenic Nitrogen"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"Yan","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutrality Zhejiang A&amp;F University  Hangzhou China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yulong","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Resources, Environment and Food Security China Agricultural University  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cheng","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry  Jena Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6387-7836","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Niveta","family":"Jain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Environmental Sciences ICAR\u2010Indian Agricultural Research Institute  New Delhi India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1881-4745","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marta","family":"Alfaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Group\u2010Bioeconomy Science Institute Ruakura Research Centre  Hamilton New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martial","family":"Bernoux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)  Rome Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6263-6341","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julia","family":"Drewer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"UK Centre for Ecology &amp; Hydrology  Penicuik UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Changke","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Climate Center China Meteorological Administration  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2119-5620","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Sanz\u2010Cobena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre for the Management of Agricultural and Environmental Risks (CEIGRAM) Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica de Madrid  Madrid Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylvia S.","family":"Nyawira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Centre for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)  Nairobi Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5419-3771","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenling","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Resources, Environment and Food Security China Agricultural University  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Scott X.","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Renewable Resources University of Alberta  Edmonton Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guangxuan","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, School of Environment Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wanli","family":"Lian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, School of Environment Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weiwei","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, School of Environment Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4138-7470","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xunhua","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, School of Environment Henan Normal University  Xinxiang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5376-7884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanjiang","family":"Cai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Silviculture, College of Environment and Resources, College of Carbon Neutrality Zhejiang A&amp;F University  Hangzhou China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2022.161231"},{"issue":"4","key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","first-page":"1058","article-title":"Emissions of N2O and NO From Fertilised Fields: Summary of Available Measurement Data","volume":"16","author":"Bouwman A. 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