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However, experimental manipulations may differ from real\u2010world environmental change in their intensity, duration, and co\u2010occurrence, leaving long\u2010term changes in soil microbial communities and soil health insufficiently understood. To address this gap, we resampled soils from 38 forest and grassland ecosystems across eastern China in 2009 and 2019 and assessed microbial taxonomic and functional diversity using shotgun metagenomics. Microbial diversity increased by 17% over the decade, accompanied by clear shifts in community composition. Among the environmental variables considered, nitrogen deposition (~19\u2009kg nitrogen\u2009ha\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    \u2009year\n                    <jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>\n                    across ecosystems) was the strongest predictor of changes in seven of 12 microbial community metrics. Larger nitrogen deposition was also associated with increased relative abundances of nitrogen\u2010cycling genes and reduced spatial turnover in microbial community composition. These effects were consistent with a potential alleviation of nitrogen limitation and weakening of deterministic community assembly, although these mechanisms could not be directly established. In addition, increases in genes associated with carbon degradation and phosphorus cycling, together with declines in the relative abundances of pathogens, antibiotic resistance genes, and DNA viruses, coincided with the raise of the composite soil health index. Our findings demonstrate widespread decadal increases in soil microbial diversity and soil health across eastern China, with nitrogen deposition emerging as their strongest environmental factor. These results highlight that microbial responses to long\u2010term ambient environmental change can differ markedly from responses inferred from short\u2010term or high\u2010intensity manipulation experiments.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.71083","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T06:07:46Z","timestamp":1787983666000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Decadal Resampling Reveals Widespread Increases in Soil Microbial Diversity Associated With Nitrogen Deposition"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6225-8154","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yi","family":"Fan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Centre of Forestry in North China Chinese Academy of Forestry  Beijing China"},{"name":"Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-6878-086X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yiheng","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Land and Environment Shenyang Agricultural University  Shenyang China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6752-241X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Hua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Forestry Henan Agricultural University  Zhengzhou China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7065-3435","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"Kardol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences  Uppsala Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9863-8461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yakov","family":"Kuzyakov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Soil Science of Temperate Ecosystems University of Goettingen  G\u00f6ttingen Germany"},{"name":"Peoples Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University)  Moscow Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuang","family":"Pang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Experimental Centre of Forestry in North China Chinese Academy of Forestry  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8657-4659","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tingling","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3798-8062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences  Beijing China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Agricultural Water Resources CAU\/CAAS  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Honghui","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Efficient Utilization of Arid and Semi\u2010Arid Arable Land in Northern China, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences  Beijing China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory of Arable Land Quality Monitoring and Evaluation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences  Beijing China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3017-4557","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anton A.","family":"Goncharov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"A.N. 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