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They can be mixed in multiple ways, but the lack of a standardized procedure to compare mixture levels has hindered the exploration of their potential benefits, rendering the term \u201cmixed\u201d too generic to support meaningful comparisons across studies or informed decision\u2010making. This study aims to (i) conduct a global literature review of the characteristics of MPF established for production (i.e., excluding biodiversity\u2010oriented forests), and (ii) develop an index to classify production\u2010oriented planted forests according to their level of mixture. We systematically screened the literature and selected 153 studies covering 253 MPF stands, from which we extracted detailed information on management practices using 10 criteria related to species composition (e.g., number of species, genetic diversity, species origin, functional composition) and structural\/spatial design (e.g., spatial distribution, age heterogeneity, understory natural regeneration). We propose an index to classify MPF according to mixture level (scaled to a 0\u20131 range) based on a multi\u2010criteria decision analysis using the PROMETHEE II outranking method. The MPF diversity index serves as a classification tool for MPF designs based on their relative dominance across multiple indicators. The results revealed that most published MPF worldwide occupy low to intermediate positions along the diversity gradient (index mean\u2009=\u20090.48), indicating a diversity gap even among intentionally diverse production\u2010oriented planted forests. The proposed index provides a transparent and comparative classification of MPF designs that can support policy and management decisions by highlighting differences in diversity\u2010related design attributes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.71111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T04:57:06Z","timestamp":1789793826000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["How Mixed Are Production\u2010Oriented Planted Forests? A Global Review and Classification Approach"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"32","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9022-5910","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leticia Bulascoschi","family":"Cagnoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of S\u00e3o Paulo  Piracicaba S\u00e3o Paulo Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3823-9183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Martin","family":"Weih","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Crop Production Ecology Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences  Uppsala Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7525-1224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anneli","family":"Adler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences  Lomma Sweden"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4385-7656","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joann\u00e8s","family":"Guillemot","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of S\u00e3o Paulo  Piracicaba S\u00e3o Paulo Brazil"},{"name":"CIRAD UMR Eco&amp;Sols  Montpellier France"},{"name":"Eco&amp;Sols Univ. Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAe, Institut Agro, IRD  Montpellier France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8245-4062","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro H. S.","family":"Brancalion","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forest Sciences Luiz de Queiroz College of Agriculture, University of S\u00e3o Paulo  Piracicaba S\u00e3o Paulo Brazil"},{"name":"Center for Carbon Research in Tropical Agriculture (CCarbon)  Piracicaba S\u00e3o Paulo Brazil"},{"name":"Re.Green  Rio de Janeiro Rio de Janeiro Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_10_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378\u20101127(97)00249\u20101"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landusepol.2024.107341"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_4_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Mixed\u2010Species Forests: The Development of a Forest Management Paradigm BT\u2014Mixed\u2010Species Forests: Ecology and Management","author":"Bauhus J.","year":"2017"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-61389-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13513"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2664.13725"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s44358-025-00032-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-3094-4_6"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_10_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Stakeholders' Perspectives on Barriers and Pathways Toward the Diversification of Planted Forests","author":"Bulascoschi Cagnoni L.","year":"2026","journal-title":"Ambio"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40725-023-00194-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.17208"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13280-016-0772-y"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoser.2025.101724"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1461-0248.2008.01219.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2025.146382"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.2011.01649.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aav0550"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-019-01817-z"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foreco.2006.05.013"},{"key":"e_1_2_10_21_1","volume-title":"The State of the World\u2019s Forests 2020. 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