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Thus, it represents a treatment dilemma: alone it does not present a risk to life, however, left untreated it may progress to a life\u2010threatening condition. Current clinico\u2010pathological features cannot accurately predict which patients with DCIS have invasive potential, and therefore clinicians are unable to quantify the risk of progression for an individual patient. This leads to many women being over\u2010treated, while others may not receive sufficient treatment to prevent invasive recurrence. A better understanding of the molecular features of DCIS, both tumour\u2010intrinsic and the microenvironment, could offer the ability to better predict which women need aggressive treatment, and which can avoid therapies carrying significant side\u2010effects and such as radiotherapy. 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