{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T22:02:18Z","timestamp":1767650538972,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,10]],"date-time":"2016-06-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1465516800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100009633","name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R01HD072296","R24\u2010HD041022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R01HD072296","R24\u2010HD041022"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100009633","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Pediatric Obesity"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Summary<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>It is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing early childhood obesity using randomized trials.<\/jats:p><jats:sec><jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title><jats:p>To illustrate how observational data can be analysed using causal inference methods to estimate the potential impact of behavioural \u2018interventions\u2019 on early childhood adiposity.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>We used longitudinal data from 1054 children 1\u20135\u2009years old enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children and followed (WIC) from 2008 to 2010 for a mean duration of 23\u2009months. The data came from a random sample of WIC families living in Los Angeles County in 2008. We used the parametric g\u2010formula to estimate the impact of various hypothetical behavioural interventions.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>Adjusted mean weight\u2010for\u2010height Z score at the end of follow\u2010up was 0.73 (95% CI 0.65, 0.81) under no intervention and 0.63 (95% CI 0.38, 0.87) for all interventions given jointly. Exclusive breastfeeding for 6\u2009months or longer was the most effective intervention [population mean difference\u2009=\u2009\u22120.11 (95% CI \u22120.22, 0.01)]. Other interventions had little or no effect.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Compared with interventions promoting healthy eating and physical activity behaviours, breastfeeding was more effective in reducing obesity risk in children aged 1\u20135\u2009years. When carefully applied, causal inference methods may offer viable alternatives to randomized trials in etiologic and evaluation research.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/ijpo.12157","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,6,10]],"date-time":"2016-06-10T07:43:30Z","timestamp":1465544610000},"page":"398-405","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Projecting the impact of hypothetical early life interventions on adiposity in children living in low\u2010income households"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5932-6169","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roch A.","family":"Nianogo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)  Los Angeles USA"},{"name":"California Center for Population Research, UCLA  Los Angeles USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"May C.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Center for Population Research, UCLA  Los Angeles USA"},{"name":"Department of Community Health Sciences, School of Public Health University of California, Los Angeles  Los Angeles USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aolin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)  Los Angeles USA"},{"name":"California Center for Population Research, UCLA  Los Angeles USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tabashir Z.","family":"Nobari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Center for Population Research, UCLA  Los Angeles USA"},{"name":"Department of Community Health Sciences, School of Public Health University of California, Los Angeles  Los Angeles USA"},{"name":"Research and Evaluation Unit Public Health Foundation Enterprises \u2014 Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (PHFE WIC)  Irwindale USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Catherine M.","family":"Crespi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, UCLA School of Public Health  Los Angeles USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shannon E.","family":"Whaley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Evaluation Unit Public Health Foundation Enterprises \u2014 Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (PHFE WIC)  Irwindale USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Onyebuchi A.","family":"Arah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Fielding School of Public Health University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)  Los Angeles 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