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Granulocyte\u2010macrophage colony\u2010stimulating factor (GM\u2010CSF) is a pleiotropic cytokine that promotes the recruitment and activation of multiple myeloid populations and has been used in combination with vaccines\/treatments against infectious diseases, inflammatory conditions and cancers. To evaluate GM\u2010CSF\u2010mediated kinetics of immune cell expansion and immune outcomes, we compared subcutaneous (subQ) and topical hypoosmolar (intravaginal\/intrarectal) administration\n                    <jats:italic>in vivo<\/jats:italic>\n                    using rhesus macaques (RM), as they provide easy access to longitudinal mucosal tissue sampling and are a critical model species for vaccines\/therapeutics development. While topical GM\u2010CSF did not result in a major change, neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes were elevated within 1\u20133\u2009days of subQ GM\u2010CSF administration, with peak eosinophil and neutrophil enrichment in blood at days 7 and 8, respectively. Corresponding elevations of neutrophils, eosinophils, total CD64\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    and total CD32\n                    <jats:sup>+<\/jats:sup>\n                    were observed at days 7 and 14 in rectal biopsies, indicating general Fc effector cell accumulation in these animals. Histological evaluations of vaginal biopsies showed myeloid cell infiltration at day 14 of subQ GM\u2010CSF treatment. Further, subQ GM\u2010CSF administration resulted in myeloid cell activation and trafficking, as evidenced by elevated levels of cytokines (CXCL13, MCP\u20101, IL\u20101RA). Importantly, neither subQ nor topical GM\u2010CSF administration induced overt systemic inflammation or adverse clinical impacts. Overall, our findings delineate the kinetics of systemic and mucosal myeloid cell expansion, activation and trafficking achieved by subQ GM\u2010CSF administration in RM. These findings will inform the use of GM\u2010CSF as an adjuvant in clinical applications where myeloid cell mobilization is advantageous.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/imcb.70061","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,7]],"date-time":"2025-10-07T07:02:12Z","timestamp":1759820532000},"page":"945-956","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Myeloid cell recruitment and activation through systemic and mucosae\u2010directed cytokine therapy"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"103","author":[{"given":"Cordelia","family":"Manickam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Innate and Comparative Immunology, Center for Human Systems Immunology Duke University School of Medicine  Durham NC USA"},{"name":"Department of Surgery Duke University School of Medicine  Durham NC 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University School of Medicine  Durham NC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harikrishnan","family":"Balachandran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Innate and Comparative Immunology, Center for Human Systems Immunology Duke University School of Medicine  Durham NC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Griffin","family":"Woolley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Innate and Comparative Immunology, Center for Human Systems Immunology Duke University School of Medicine  Durham NC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Georgia D","family":"Tomaras","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surgery Duke University School of Medicine  Durham NC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois J","family":"Villinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New Iberia Research Center 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