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A large iatrogenic epidemic of hepatitis B occurred in 1942 due to contaminated lots of yellow fever (YF) vaccine used in the US military, even though there was no natural risk of infection. YF vaccine was intended to protect against Japanese Army's use of YF as a biowarfare agent, which did not eventuate. <jats:italic>Salmonella typhi<\/jats:italic> was used to infect German soldiers in a Paris caf\u00e9 during Christmas 1941 in the knowledge that the caf\u00e9 staff but not the soldiers were likely to be immunised against typhoid fever. German Army use of the Weil\u2013Felix reaction to eliminate civilians likely to be typhus infected was subverted by Polish medical officers. They immunised civilians with locally produced <jats:italic>Proteus<\/jats:italic> antigens to create false\u2010positive Weil\u2013Felix reactions in order to exempt men from forced labour schemes. Immunisation against biowarfare agents has a mixed record, indicating that vaccines rarely cover well for intelligence gaps.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.16063","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,26]],"date-time":"2023-04-26T02:07:44Z","timestamp":1682474864000},"page":"644-647","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Immunisation used for offensive and defensive purposes during the Second World War"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"53","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5763-8660","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George Dennis","family":"Shanks","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Australian Defence Force Malaria and Infectious Diseases Institute  Brisbane Queensland Australia"},{"name":"School of Public Health University of Queensland  Brisbane Queensland Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","first-page":"627","volume-title":"Military Preventive Medicine: Mobilization and Deployment","author":"Pavilin JA","year":"2003"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61786-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0809.010536"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","volume-title":"Unit 731: Japan's Secret Biological Warfare in World War II","author":"Williams P","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a118911"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.aje.a118977"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1945.s1-25.75"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","volume-title":"Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa","author":"Curtin PD","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","first-page":"17","article-title":"Une \u00e9pid\u00e9mie de fi\u00e8vre typho\u00efde parmi les troupes allemandes \u00e0 Paris \u00e0 No\u00ebl 1941","volume":"42","author":"Brumpt L","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hist Sci Med"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/imj.15947"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","first-page":"26","article-title":"Serendipitous discovery of artificial positive Weil\u2010Felix reaction used in a 'private immunological war'","volume":"71","author":"Lazowski ES","year":"1980","journal-title":"Navy Med"}],"container-title":["Internal Medicine Journal"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/imj.16063","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,18]],"date-time":"2023-08-18T05:53:59Z","timestamp":1692338039000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/imj.16063"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]},"references-count":11,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/imj.16063"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/imj.16063","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1444-0903","1445-5994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1444-0903","type":"print"},{"value":"1445-5994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,4]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2022-12-08","order":0,"name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-01-09","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2023-04-25","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}