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Targeting is achieved through binding of <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">hsp<\/jats:styled-content> to distinct cell surface receptors and is followed by antigen internalization, processing and presentation. An improved understanding of the interaction of hsp with <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DC<\/jats:styled-content> has driven the development of numerous hsp\u2010containing vaccines, designed to deliver antigens directly to <jats:styled-content style=\"fixed-case\">DC<\/jats:styled-content>. Studies in mice have shown that for cancers, such vaccines generate impressive immune responses and protection from tumour challenge. However, translation to human use, as for many experimental immunotherapies, has been slow partly because of the need to perform trials in patients with advanced cancers, where demonstration of efficacy is challenging. 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