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The brain accumulates stress signals and processes them according to the intensity, frequency duration and type of stress, recruiting several brain functions to activate the autonomic or limbic system. Triggering the autonomic system causes the rapid release of catecholamines, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, into circulation from chromaffin cells in the head kidney. Catecholamines trigger blood cells to release proinflammatory and regulatory cytokines to cope with acute stress. Activation of the limbic axis stimulates the dorsolateral and dorsomedial pallium to process emotions, memory, behaviour and the activation of preoptic nucleus\u2010pituitary gland\u2010interrenal cells in the head kidney, releasing glucocorticoids, such as cortisol to the bloodstream. Glucocorticoids cause downregulation of various immune system functions depending on the duration, intensity and type of chronic stress. As stress persists, most immune functions, with the exception of cytotoxic functions, overcome these effects and return to homeostasis. The deterioration of cytotoxic functions during chronic stress appears to be responsible for increased morbidity and mortality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.13345","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,30]],"date-time":"2021-04-30T18:58:46Z","timestamp":1619809126000},"page":"211-222","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Influence of chronic stress on the mechanism of the cytotoxic system in common carp (<i>Cyprinus<\/i><i>carpio<\/i>)"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"164","author":[{"given":"Mazal","family":"Shimon\u2010Hophy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Comparative Immunology and Genetics The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences Bar\u2010Ilan University Ramat\u2010Gan Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramy R.","family":"Avtalion","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Comparative 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