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These disparities are multifactorial, arising partly from gender\u2010specific behaviors that influence exposure risk and health\u2010seeking practices, especially in low\u2010 and middle\u2010income countries. Increasing evidence also highlights that biological sex differences within the immune system significantly shape susceptibility to and control of parasitic infections. Recent advances combining classical immunology with single\u2010cell transcriptomics have revealed hormonal and chromosomal factors driving sex\u2010specific differences in innate and adaptive immune cells. These differences can critically influence the course and outcome of parasitic diseases. However, many studies on parasitic diseases still lack adequately sex\u2010disaggregated data or fail to apply state\u2010of\u2010the\u2010art immunological analyses needed to fully characterize biological sex effects. Studies in rodent models that mirror the sex bias observed in humans provide valuable tools to analyze immune mechanisms at the cellular level and dissect underlying biological differences. In this review, we summarize current knowledge on sex differences in key cellular components of innate and adaptive immunity and discuss their relevance for selected parasitic diseases of major global importance\u2014leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, amebiasis, schistosomiasis, and malaria.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.70097","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T04:35:17Z","timestamp":1768624517000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Sex in Immune Cells and Parasitic Diseases \u2014 A Complex Relationship"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"337","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8942-6013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Barbara","family":"Honecker","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2145-6838","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charlotte Sophie","family":"Hansen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1030-0229","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hanna","family":"Lotter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine  Hamburg Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_11_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.14.3.476-488.2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2016.90"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-018-0187-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.00283-22"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.720952"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpara.2025.1546195"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-024-01260-x"},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_11_9_1","first-page":"137","article-title":"Parasitic Diseases in Humans Transmitted by Vectors","volume":"61","author":"Cholewinski M.","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annals of Parasitology"},{"key":"e_1_2_11_10_1","volume-title":"Global Report on Neglected Tropical Diseases 2023","author":"Organization WH","year":"2023"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_11_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0008001","article-title":"What Constitutes a Neglected Tropical Disease?","volume":"14","author":"Hotez P. 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