{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T11:55:39Z","timestamp":1781783739879,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,24]],"date-time":"2004-05-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1085356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Governance"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Competency can be considered a central theme in contemporary public service reforms. This article analyzes the development of competency frameworks for senior public servants at the national\u2013government level in three countries (the U.S., the U.K., and Germany). By tracing the development of competency as an idea, it is shown that competency reforms drew selectively on management ideas, and by tracing the nature and time\u2010patterns of competency reform developments in the three countries, it is shown that competency came onto the reform agenda at different times and by various routes rather than by a simple pattern of international policy transfer or business\u2010to\u2010government transfer. It is argued that the adoption of competency frameworks took place at critical junctures for preexisting public service bargains or agreements in each case and that they were shaped by the particularities of institutional context. However, although competency is arguably central to public service reform, it is far from clear that the competency frameworks in these three cases contributed to the declared aims of many contemporary public service reformers.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0952-1895.2004.00248.x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,24]],"date-time":"2004-05-24T08:50:53Z","timestamp":1085388653000},"page":"313-333","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Competency, Bureaucracy, and Public Management Reform: A Comparative Analysis"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Christopher","family":"Hood","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Lodge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"In the Web of Politics","author":"Aberbach J. D.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0491.1990.tb00111.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"Getting Agencies to Work Together","author":"Bardach E.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"The New Public Management","author":"Barzelay M.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","volume-title":"Breaking Through Bureaucracy","author":"Barzelay M.","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Leadership Counts","author":"Behn R. D.","year":"1991"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","volume-title":"The Competent Manager","author":"Boyatzis R.","year":"1982"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","volume-title":"Competency Frameworks in UK Organisations","author":"Chartered Institute of Personnel Development (CIPD)","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002085239706300401"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","volume-title":"Public Management and Policy Transfer in Southeast Asia","author":"Common R.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","volume-title":"Dimensions of Effective Behaviour","author":"Corts D. B.","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunleavy P. J.1994The Globalization of Public Service Production: Can Government Be \u201cBest\u2010in\u2010World\u201d?Public Policy & Administration9.","DOI":"10.1177\/095207679400900204"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"Selection Tests and Sex Bias","author":"Equal Opportunities Commission","year":"1987"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","unstructured":"Eyde L. D. andB. W.Schay.1997Managerial Competencies: Foundations for Cost Effective Selection. Paper presented to Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology 12th Annual Conference St Louis Missouri April 11."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/3109968"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/0199247757.001.0001","volume-title":"Varieties of Capitalism","author":"Hall P. A.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","volume-title":"Competing for the Future","author":"Hamel G.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","first-page":"191","volume-title":"B\u00fcrokratische Organisation","author":"Hartmann H.","year":"1968"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0143814X00004955"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9299.1991.tb00779.x","article-title":"A Public Management for All Seasons?","volume":"69","author":"Hood C.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Public Administration"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.4337\/9781035352593.00012","volume-title":"Bureaucracy in the Modern State","author":"Hood C.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","volume-title":"The Art of the State","author":"Hood C.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1096-7494(00)00032-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","first-page":"13","volume-title":"Politicians, Bureaucrats and Administrative Reform","author":"Hood C.","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jpart.a003536"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","volume-title":"Accident and Design","author":"Hood C.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","volume-title":"Civil Service Policy\u2010Making Competencies in the German BMWi and the British DTI","author":"Hood C.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511528163"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","volume-title":"The Higher Civil Service in the United States","author":"Huddleston M. W.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-349-26896-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/977147"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","unstructured":"Ingraham P.2001Linking Leadership to Performance in Public Organisations. PUMA\/HRM (2001)8\/Final June 2001."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1520-6688(199722)16:3<446::AID-PAM5>3.0.CO;2-H"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","first-page":"15","volume-title":"Public Management and Administrative Reform in Western Europe","author":"Kickert W.","year":"1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","unstructured":"Kierstadt J.1998Competencies and KSAO\u2019s\u2019 Public Services Commission of Canada. Available online athttp:\/\/www.psc\u2010cfp.gc.ca\/research\/personnel\/comp_klao_e.htm"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","volume-title":"Actively Seeking Work? The Politics of Unemployment and Welfare Policy in the United States and Great Britain","author":"King D. S.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","volume-title":"Agendas, Alternatives and Public Polices","author":"Kingdon J.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","unstructured":"K\u00fcbler H.1984Das Bonner Modell der Personalbeurteilung\u2014Neuer Wein in alten Schl\u00e4uchen? (The Bonn Model of Staff Evaluation: New Wine in Old Bottles?)Die \u00d6ffentliche VerwaltungFebruary:92\u201399."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","volume-title":"Public Management as Art, Science and Profession","author":"Lynn L.","year":"1996"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","first-page":"24","article-title":"What Is \u201cCompetence\u201d All About?","volume":"6","author":"Mansfield B.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Competency and Emotional Intelligence Quarterly"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2111570"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0034092"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","volume-title":"Mintzberg on Management","author":"Mintzberg H.","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","first-page":"36","article-title":"Who We Are and What We Do: Some Thoughts about Competence","volume":"7","author":"Moloney K.","year":"2000","journal-title":"Competency and Emotional Intelligence Quarterly"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jpart.a003505"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","volume-title":"Creating Public Value","author":"Moore M.","year":"1995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","volume-title":"Leadership for America","author":"National Commission on the Public Service","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","volume-title":"Public Sector Leadership for the 21st Century","author":"Organisation for Economic Co\u2010operation and Development (OECD)","year":"2001"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","volume-title":"Reinventing Government","author":"Osborne D.","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","volume-title":"Taking Stock","author":"Peters B. G.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","volume-title":"Public Management Reform","author":"Pollitt C.","year":"2000"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prahalad C. andG.Hamel.1990The Core Competence of the Corporation.Harvard Business Review68(3).","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7506-7223-8.50003-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","volume-title":"How to Prepare and Conduct Job Element Examinations","author":"Primoff E. S.","year":"1975"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","volume-title":"Intelligent Enterprise","author":"Quinn J. B.","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","volume-title":"Competence in Modern Society","author":"Raven J.","year":"1984"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","volume-title":"Risk: Analysis, Perception, Management","author":"Royal Society","year":"1992"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","first-page":"215","volume-title":"New Paradigms for Government","author":"Sanders R. P.","year":"1994"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","volume-title":"The Administrative Factor","author":"Schaffer B.","year":"1973"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","volume-title":"Leadership in Administration","author":"Selznick P.","year":"1957"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","volume-title":"A Primer on Intergovernmental Grants: The Flypaper Effect","author":"Snodden T.","year":"1998"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139175050.006"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","volume-title":"Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft","author":"Weber M.","year":"1980"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0040934"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9299.00296"}],"container-title":["Governance"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fj.0952-1895.2004.00248.x","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/j.0952-1895.2004.00248.x","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,16]],"date-time":"2024-12-16T23:28:45Z","timestamp":1734391725000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/j.0952-1895.2004.00248.x"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,24]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/j.0952-1895.2004.00248.x"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.0952-1895.2004.00248.x","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["0952-1895","1468-0491"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0952-1895","type":"print"},{"value":"1468-0491","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2004,5,24]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2004-05-24","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}