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Two of these neurotoxins are the pro\u2010inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor\u2010\u03b1 (TNF\u2010\u03b1) and interleukin\u20101\u03b2 (IL\u20101\u03b2), which are thought to play a major role in inducing neuronal death. Both TNF\u2010\u03b1 and IL\u20101\u03b2 increase the permeability of the blood\u2013brain barrier, through which subsequently HIV\u2010infected monocytes can enter the brain. They both induce over\u2010stimulation of the NMDA\u2010receptor via several pathways, resulting in a lethal neuronal increase in Ca<jats:sup>2+<\/jats:sup>levels. Additionally, TNF\u2010\u03b1 co\u2010operates with several other proinflammatory mediators to enhance their toxic effects. Although most research has focused on the neurotoxic effects of TNF\u2010\u03b1 and IL\u20101\u03b2 in HAD, there is also evidence that these cytokines can be neuroprotective. 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