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Xenotransplantation 2012; 19: 144\u2013158. \u00a9 2012 John Wiley &amp; Sons A\/S.<\/jats:p><jats:p><jats:bold>Abstract:\u2002<\/jats:bold> Barriers to successful lung xenotransplantation appear to be even greater than for other organs. This difficulty may be related to several macro anatomic factors, such as the uniquely fragile lung parenchyma and associated blood supply that results in heightened vulnerability of graft function to segmental or lobar airway flooding caused by loss of vascular integrity (also applicable to allotransplants). There are also micro\u2010anatomic considerations, such as the presence of large numbers of resident inflammatory cells, such as pulmonary intravascular macrophages and natural killer (NK) T cells, and the high levels of von Willebrand factor (vWF) associated with the microvasculature. We have considered what developments would be necessary to allow successful clinical lung xenotransplantation. We suggest this will only be achieved by multiple genetic modifications of the organ\u2010source pig, in particular to render the vasculature resistant to thrombosis. The major problems that require to be overcome are multiple and include (i) the innate immune response (antibody, complement, donor pulmonary and recipient macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and NK cells), (ii) the adaptive immune response (T and B cells), (iii) coagulation dysregulation, and (iv) an inflammatory response (e.g., TNF\u2010\u03b1, IL\u20106, HMGB1, C\u2010reactive protein). We propose that the genetic manipulation required to provide normal thromboregulation alone may include the introduction of genes for human thrombomodulin\/endothelial protein C\u2010receptor, and\/or tissue factor pathway inhibitor, and\/or CD39\/CD73; the problem of pig vWF may also need to be addressed. It would appear that exploration of every available therapeutic path will be required if lung xenotransplantation is to be successful. To initiate a clinical trial of lung xenotransplantation, even as a bridge to allotransplantation (with a realistic possibility of survival long enough for a human lung allograft to be obtained), significant advances and much experimental work will be required. Nevertheless, with the steadily increasing developments in techniques of genetic engineering of pigs, we are optimistic that the goal of successful clinical lung xenotransplantation can be achieved within the foreseeable future. The optimistic view would be that if experimental pig lung xenotransplantation could be successfully managed, it is likely that clinical application of this and all other forms of xenotransplantation would become more feasible.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3089.2012.00708.x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,6,15]],"date-time":"2012-06-15T15:04:14Z","timestamp":1339772654000},"page":"144-158","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":62,"title":["Clinical lung xenotransplantation \u2013 what donor genetic modifications may be necessary?"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"David K. 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