{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,10]],"date-time":"2026-01-10T07:40:38Z","timestamp":1768030838878,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2007,6,5]],"date-time":"2007-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1181001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Child Psychology Psychiatry"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Background:\u2002<\/jats:bold>\n                    To what extent do genetic and environmental influences on reading disability overlap with those on mathematics disability? Multivariate genetic research on the normal range of variation in unselected samples has led to a Generalist Genes Hypothesis which posits that the same genes largely affect individual differences in these abilities in the normal range. However, little is known about the etiology of co\u2010morbidity for the disability extremes of reading and mathematics.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Method:\u2002<\/jats:bold>\n                    From 2596 pairs of 10\u2010year\u2010old monozygotic and dizygotic twins assessed on a web\u2010based battery of reading and mathematics tests, we selected the lowest 15% on reading and on mathematics. We conducted bivariate DeFries\u2013Fulker (DF) extremes analyses to assess overlap and specificity of genetic and environmental influences on reading and mathematics disability defined by a 15% cut\u2010off.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Results:\u2002<\/jats:bold>\n                    Both reading and mathematics disability are moderately heritable (47% and 43%, respectively) and show only modest shared environmental influence (16% and 20%). There is substantial phenotypic co\u2010morbidity between reading and mathematics disability. Bivariate DF extremes analyses yielded a genetic correlation of .67 between reading disability and mathematics disability, suggesting that they are affected largely by the same genetic factors. The shared environmental correlation is .96 and the non\u2010shared environmental correlation is .08.\n                  <\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>\n                    <jats:bold>Conclusions:\u2002<\/jats:bold>\n                    In line with the Generalist Genes Hypothesis, the same set of generalist genes largely affects mathematical and reading disabilities. The dissociation between the disabilities occurs largely due to independent non\u2010shared environmental influences.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01748..x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,6,5]],"date-time":"2007-06-05T04:56:39Z","timestamp":1181019399000},"page":"914-922","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":62,"title":["Overlap and specificity of genetic and environmental influences on mathematics and reading disability in 10\u2010year\u2010old twins"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"48","author":[{"given":"Y.","family":"Kovas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"C.M.A.","family":"Haworth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"N.","family":"Harlaar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"S.A.","family":"Petrill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"P.S.","family":"Dale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Plomin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,8,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.55.090902.141601"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Davis O.S.P. Kovas Y. Harlaar N. Busfield P. McMillan A. Frances J. Petrill S.A. Dale P.S. &Plomin R.(2007).Generalist genes specialist environments and the internet generation: Etiology of learning abilities using web\u2010based testing at 10\u2003years. Manuscript submitted for publication.","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1601-183X.2007.00370.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0001566000003810"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","volume-title":"Genes, culture, and personality: An empirical approach","author":"Eaves L.J.","year":"1989"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00394.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1021055617738"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","first-page":"97","article-title":"Genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in printed word recognition","volume":"84","author":"Gayan J.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.59.2.93"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haworth C.M.A. Harlaar N. Kovas Y. Davis O.S.P. Oliver B. Hayiou\u2010Thomas M.E. Frances J. Busfield P. McMillan A. Dale P.S. &Plomin R.(2007).Internet cognitive testing of large samples needed in genetic research. Manuscript submitted for publication.","DOI":"10.1375\/twin.10.4.554"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.60.6.581"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025622400239"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1375\/136905299320565906"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2005.05.002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","article-title":"Mathematical ability of 10\u2010year\u2010old boys and girls: Genetic and environmental etiology of normal and low performance","author":"Kovas Y.","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","article-title":"The origins of diverse domains of mathematics: Generalist genes but specialist environments","author":"Kovas Y.","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949502800204"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","first-page":"215","article-title":"Multivariate behavioral genetic analysis of achievement and cognitive measures in reading\u2010disabled and control twin pairs","volume":"70","author":"Light J.G.","year":"1998","journal-title":"Human Biology"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1375\/twin.8.6.585"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","volume-title":"Peabody Individual Achievement Test\u2010Revised (Normative Update) Manual","author":"Markwardt F.C.","year":"1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01080045"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","volume-title":"Mx: Statistical Modeling","author":"Neale M.C.","year":"1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","unstructured":"nferNelson Maths 5\u201314 Series(1994 1999 2001). 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