{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T13:19:48Z","timestamp":1762175988720},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,1]],"date-time":"2021-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1609459200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":5479,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Law. Med. Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Although knowledge of torture and physical and psychological abuse was widespread at both the Guantanamo Bay detention facility and Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq, and known to medical personnel, there was no official report before the January 2004 Army investigation of military health personnel reporting abuse, degradation, or signs of torture. Mounting information from many sources, including Pentagon documents, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, etc., indicate that medical personnel failed to maintain medical records, conduct routine medical examinations, provide proper care of disabled and injured detainees, accurately report illnesses and injuries, and falsified medical records and death certificates. Medical personnel and medical information was also used to design and implement psychologically and physically coercive interrogations. The United States military medical system failed to protect detainee's human rights, violated the basic principles of medical ethics and ignored the basic tenets of medical professionalism.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-720x.2006.00071.x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,9,29]],"date-time":"2006-09-29T13:04:09Z","timestamp":1159535049000},"page":"570-580","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Medical Ethics at Guantanamo Bay and Abu Ghraib: The Problem of Dual Loyalty"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"34","author":[{"given":"Peter A.","family":"Clark","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref44","unstructured":"44. Randall, K. , \u201cU. S. Doctors Tied To Torture At Guantanamo, Abu Ghraib,\u201d World Socialist Web Site, January 13, 2005, at <http:\/\/www.wsws.org\/articles\/2005\/jan2005\/tort-j13_prn.shtml> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref34","first-page":"1","volume-title":"\u201cInterrogators Cite Doctors' Aid at Guantanamo,\u201d","author":"Lewis","year":"2005"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref48","unstructured":"48. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 8."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref13","unstructured":"13. United Nations, \u201cConvention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane and Degrading Treatment or Punishment,\u201d 1984, at <http:\/\/www.unhchr.ch\/html\/menu3\/b\/h_cat39.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref30","unstructured":"30. American Psychiatric Association and American Psychological Association, \u201cAgainst Torture: Joint Resolution of the American Psychiatric Association and the American Psychological Association,\u201d (1985): Principle A, Beneficence and Nonmaleficence and Ethical Standard 3.04, Avoiding Harm, at <http:\/\/www.psych.org\/edu\/other_res\/lib_archives\/198506.pdf> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)17430-8"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref37","unstructured":"37. Miles, , supra note 6, at 727."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref1","unstructured":"1. Editor, \u201cMedical Personnel at Abu Ghraib Ignored Medical Ethics and Human Rights,\u201d News-Medical.Net (August 20, 2004): 1\u20135. See also U.S. Army Inspector General, Detainee Operations Investigation, July 21, 2004. at <http:\/\/www.npr.org\/documents\/2004\/armyinspector.detainee.report.pdf.>"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"9. United Nations, \u201cUniversal Declaration of Human Rights,\u201d 1948, at <http:\/\/www.un.org\/Overview\/rights.html> (last visited April 11, 2006).","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110186406.377"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref46","unstructured":"46. Miles, , supra note 6, at 726."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref45","unstructured":"45. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 7."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref22","unstructured":"22. Miles, , supra note 6, at 726."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref27","volume-title":"\u201cDoing Unto Others As They Do Unto You,\u201d","author":"Bloche","year":"2005"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref20","unstructured":"20. Miles, , supra note 6, at 725."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref29","unstructured":"29. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 6\u20137."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref11","unstructured":"11. United Nations, \u201cBody of Principles for the Protection of All Persons Under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment,\u201d 1988, at <http:\/\/www.unhchr.ch\/html\/menu3\/b\/h_comp36.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref17","unstructured":"17. Bush, George W. , \u201cMemorandum for the Vice President on Humane Treatment of al-Queda and Tailban Detainees\u201d (February 7, 2002), at <http:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-srv\/nation\/documents\/020702bush.pdf> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref5","first-page":"1","article-title":"\u201cHealthcare Professionals and Dual Loyalty: Technical Proficiency is not Enough,\u201d","volume":"7","author":"Solomon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Medscape General Medicine"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref12","unstructured":"12. First United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, \u201cStandard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners,\u201d 1955, at <http:\/\/www.unhchr.ch\/html\/menu3\/b\/h_comp34.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref51","unstructured":"51. Solomon, , supra note 5, at 3. See also, American Psychological Association Task Force, \u201cReport on Psychological Ethics and National Security,\u201d June 2005, 1\u201311."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref19","unstructured":"19. Miles, , supra note 6, at 725. See also, Department of Defense Working Group on Detainee Interrogations in the Global War Against Terrorism, \u201cAssessment of Legal, Historical, Policy and Operational Considerations,\u201d (March 6, 2003), at <http:\/\/www.ccr-ny.org\/v2\/home.asp> (last visited April 11, 2006); Office of Assistant Attorney General, \u201cMemorandum for Robert R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, Re. Standards of Conduct for Interrogation Under 18 U.S.C. 2340\u20132340A,\u201d (August 1, 2002), at <http:\/\/www.washingtonpost.com\/wp-srv\/nation\/documents\/dojinterrogationmemo20020801.pdf> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref2","unstructured":"2. Id."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref35","unstructured":"35. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 6. See also Huck, R. A. , \u201cU. S. Southern Command Confidentiality Policy for Interaction Between Health Care Providers and Enemy Persons Under U. S. Control, Detained In Conjunction With Operation Ending Freedom (August 6, 2002), at <http:\/\/www.southcom.mil\/restrict\/J1\/new%20web%20page\/New%20Web%20Pages\/AG\/Policy?Current%20SC%20Policies?SC%20Current_pols.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref38","unstructured":"38. United Nations, supra note 9."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref25","unstructured":"25. Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, Code of Medical Ethics: Current Opinions and Annotations, 2004\u20132005 edition (Chicago, AMA Press, 2004): Chapter 2.067, 24\u201325."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref47","unstructured":"47. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 8."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref16","unstructured":"16. Silove, , supra note 3, at 1915."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref10","unstructured":"10. Geneva Convention, \u201cRelative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War,\u201d 1949, at <http:\/\/www.unhchr.ch\/html\/menu3\/b\/91.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16902-X"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref40","unstructured":"40. Hochschild, , supra note 39, at 1."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref23","first-page":"768","volume-title":"Dorland's Illustrated Dictionary","author":"Taylor","year":"1988"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref33","unstructured":"33. Powell, , supra note 4, at 2\u20133."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref21","unstructured":"21. Norton-Taylor, R. , \u201cComplicity With Torture,\u201d The Guardian, December 8, 2005, at <http:\/\/politics.guardian.co.uk\/comment\/story\/0,9115,1661628,00.html> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref15","unstructured":"15. Miles, , supra note 6, at 727."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref14","unstructured":"14. U. S. Army Field Manuel, \u201cInterrogation and the Interrogator,\u201d (1987): Chapter 1, 34\u201352, at <http:\/\/www.globalsecurity.org\/intell\/library\/policy\/army\/fm\/fm34-52\/chapter1.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref49","unstructured":"49. Randall, , supra note 44, at 2."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref26","unstructured":"26. Solomon, , supra note 5, at 1."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref24","unstructured":"24. 29th World Medical Assembly, World Medical Association, \u201cDeclaration of Tokyo: Guidelines for Physicians Concerning Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Punishment in Relation to Detention and Imprisonment,\u201d (Tokyo, Japan, October 1975): Declaration 1, at <http:\/\/www.wma.net\/e\/policy\/c18.htm> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref4","unstructured":"4. Powell, A. , \u201cWhy Good Doctors Do Bad Things,\u201d Harvard Gazette (March 3, 2005): 1\u20133, at <http:\/\/www.news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/2005\/03.03\/11-abu.html> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref32","unstructured":"32. United Nations, \u201cGeneva Conventions Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War,\u201d (1949), at <http:\/\/www.unhchr.ch\/html\/menu3\/b\/91htm> (last visited April 11, 2006) see also, Miles, , supra note 6, at 727."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref28","unstructured":"28. Miles, , supra note 6, at 726."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)17428-X"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref42","unstructured":"42. Church Report, \u201cUnclassified Executive Summary,\u201d June 16, 2005, at <http:\/\/www.defenselink.mil\/news\/Mar2005\/d200503103xe.pdf> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref39","first-page":"1","volume-title":"\u201cArrested Development,\u201d","author":"Hochschild","year":"2005"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref8","unstructured":"8. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 6."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref53","unstructured":"53. Editor, \u201cMedical Personnel at Abu Ghraib Ignored Medical Ethics and Human Rights,\u201d Medical News (August 20, 2004): 1\u20132, at <http:\/\/www.news-medical.net\/print_article.asp?id=4225> (last visited April 11, 2006)."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMp058145"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref43","unstructured":"43. Bloche, and Marks, , supra note 7, at 6."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16383-6"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/milmed\/167.suppl_3.20"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref41","first-page":"2096","volume-title":"Encyclopedia of Bioethics","author":"Purtilo","year":"1995"},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref18","unstructured":"18. Miles, , supra note 6, at 725."},{"key":"S1073110500008214_ref36","unstructured":"36. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects (U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1979): B-1."}],"container-title":["Journal of Law, Medicine &amp; Ethics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fj.1748-720X.2006.00071.x","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/j.1748-720X.2006.00071.x","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/services\/aop-cambridge-core\/content\/view\/S1073110500008214","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,9]],"date-time":"2023-05-09T00:53:12Z","timestamp":1683593592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/product\/identifier\/S1073110500008214\/type\/journal_article"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2006]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006]]}},"alternative-id":["S1073110500008214"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1748-720x.2006.00071.x","relation":{},"ISSN":["1073-1105","1748-720X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1073-1105","type":"print"},{"value":"1748-720X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2006]]}}}