{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T12:34:32Z","timestamp":1772800472553,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"Cambridge University Press (CUP)","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,1]],"date-time":"2021-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1609459200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":4018,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Law. Med. Ethics"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Criminalization is a form of social marginalization that is little appreciated as a determinant of poor health. Criminalization can be understood in at least two ways \u2014 in the narrow sense as the imposition of criminal penalties for a certain behavior, and more broadly as the conferral of a criminalized status on all individuals in the population, whether proven guilty of a specific offense or not. Both criminal penalties and criminalized status threaten the mental and physical health of these populations in many ways. Incarceration, abandonment by families and communities, social disdain, physical abuse, discrimination, and relentless fear undermine their ability to enjoy their right to the highest attainable standard of health goods and services. Understanding the social determinants of health in these populations and formulating programs to address them have rarely been high priorities in national or international policy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-720x.2010.00535.x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,11,24]],"date-time":"2010-11-24T15:56:14Z","timestamp":1290614174000},"page":"816-831","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Health Benefits of Legal Services for Criminalized Populations: The Case of People Who Use Drugs, Sex Workers and Sexual and Gender Minorities"],"prefix":"10.1017","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Joanne","family":"Csete","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jonathan","family":"Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib67","unstructured":"67. 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Id."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib47","volume-title":"Sex, Work, Rights: Changing Canada's Criminal Laws to Protect Sex Workers' Health and Human Rights","author":"Betteridge","year":"2005"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib85","unstructured":"85. See Winter, et al., supra note 46."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib95","unstructured":"95. Helem, , \u201cHuman Rights in Lebanon,\u201d available at <www.helem.net\/node\/126> (last visited May 2, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib33","unstructured":"33. See Davis, , supra note 30."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib112","unstructured":"112. 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Dovkants, K. , \u201cSoho Brothel to Re-open After Judge Throws Out Police Case,\u201d Evening Standard (London), February 18, 2009, available at <www.prostitutescollective.net> (last visited September 28, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib82","volume-title":"Access to Health Care for LGBT People in Kyrgyzstan","author":"Alisheva","year":"2007"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib38","unstructured":"38. Id., at 44."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib2","unstructured":"2. WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health, Achieving Health Equity: From Root Causes to Fair Outcomes, Interim Statement, October 2007, at 2."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib70","unstructured":"70. Silverman, J. , \u201cSex Workers Say \u2018Let Us Stay,\u2019\u201d BBC News, February 18, 2003, available at <http:\/\/news.bbc.co.uk\/1\/hi\/uk\/2754019.stm> (last visited September 28, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib73","unstructured":"73. See Betteridge, , supra note 47"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib42","unstructured":"42. See Carey, and Tolopilo, , supra note 19, at 26."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib93","unstructured":"93. Lambda Legal, \u201cBarros v. Riggall,\u201d 2007, \u201cSocial Security Administration to Provide Benefits in Lambda Legal Case Representing Gay Father's Children,\u201d 2009, and \u201cLambda Legal, HIV and Medical Groups Urge Rescission of Bush-Era Regulations Threatening Health Care Access,\u201d 2009, available through <www.lambdalegal.org\/news> (last visited September 29, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib30","unstructured":"30. Davis, M. , \u201cStreet Lawyering in Jakarta,\u201d commentary for Asia Catalyst, February 2009, available at <http:\/\/asiacatalyst.org\/blog\/2009\/02\/street-lawyering-in-jakarta.html> (last visited September 28, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib106","unstructured":"106. Modise, O. , \u201cBotswana: Lesbians Demand Their Day in Court,\u201d AllAfrica.com, April 30, 2009, available at <allafrica.com\/stories\/printable\/200905040876.html> (last visited September 29, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib25","unstructured":"25. Id."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib34","volume-title":"Pivot Complaint Forces VPD Policy Changes","year":"2005"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib39","unstructured":"39. Id., at 18."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib55","first-page":"14","volume-title":"Observance of the Rights of Sex Workers to Obtain Health Care: Monitoring of Human Rights in Medical Institutions in Osh City in the Kyrgyz Republic","year":"2008"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib57","volume-title":"Sex Work, HIV\/AIDS and Human Rights in Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia","year":"2005"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib40","unstructured":"40. Wodak, A. and Cooney, A. , Effectiveness of Sterile Syringe and Needle Programming in Reducing HIV\/AIDS among Injecting Drug Users, Evidence for Action Technical Paper, 2004, available at <http:\/\/www.who.int\/hiv\/pub\/prev_care\/effectivenesss-terileneedle.pdf> (last visited September 28, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib64","unstructured":"64. South Asia Regional Initiative\/Equity Support Program, \u201cLandmark Judgments on Violence against Women and Children from South Asia,\u201d 2007, at 15\u201316, available at <http:\/\/www.childtrafficking.com\/Docs\/judge_woman_childvio_0607.pdf> (last visited May 2, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib90","unstructured":"90. Canadian HIV\/AIDS Legal Network, \u201cReaching the Millions: HIV\/AIDS and Human Rights Education for Men Who Have Sex with Men in the People's Republic of China - Final Report to the HIV\/AIDS Small Grants Fund of the Canadian International Development Agency\u201d (June 2007) (on file with J. Csete.)"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib37","unstructured":"37. See Carey, and Tolopilo, , supra note 19, at 32."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib1","unstructured":"1. Constitution of the World Health Organization, Adopted 1946 by the International Health Conference, as amended in UN docs WHA 26.37, WHA 29,38, WHA 39.6 and WHA 51.23, version of October 2006, at 1."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib31","unstructured":"31. See Carey, , supra note 17"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib89","unstructured":"89. Funders for Lesbian and Gay Issues, \u201cA Global Gaze: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Grant-Making in the Global South and East (2007),\u201d <http:\/\/www.lgbtfunders.org\/files\/FLGI%20LGBTI_GFRprWeb.pdf> (last visited September 29, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib75","unstructured":"75. See Crago, , supra note 58, at 15."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib79","volume-title":"Hated to Death: Homophobia, Violence and Jamaica's HIV\/AIDS Epidemic","author":"Schleifer","year":"2004"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib8","unstructured":"8. Hunt, P. (then UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Health), \u201cHuman Rights, Health and Harm Reduction: States' Amnesia and Parallel Universes,\u201d speech to the 19th International Conference on Reduction of Drug-Related Harm, Barcelona, Spain, May 11, 2008."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib100","first-page":"1211","article-title":"\u201cBreaking Out of the Prison Hierarchy: Transgender Prisoners, Rape, and the Eighth Amendment,\u201d","volume":"44","author":"Peek","year":"2004","journal-title":"Santa Clara Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib53","unstructured":"53. See Crago, and Arnott, , supra note 46."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib41","unstructured":"41. See Demchenko, , supra note 35, at 68."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib65","unstructured":"65. Id."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib117","volume-title":"\u201cEffectiveness of Medical-Legal Partnership in Provision of Legal Aid for Frug Users,\u201d","author":"Dinze"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib35","first-page":"67","article-title":"\u201cLegal Aid Works! Harm Reduction and Legal Services in Poltava, Ukraine,\u201d","volume":"12","author":"Demchenko","year":"2007","journal-title":"HIV\/AIDS Policy and Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib76","volume-title":"Documenting Human Rights Violations of Sex Workers in Kenya: A Report Based on Findings of a Study Conducted in Nairobi, Kisumu, Busia, Nanyuki, Mombasa and Malindi Towns in Kenya","author":"Mumma","year":"2008"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib101","unstructured":"101. 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We use the terms \u201cmen who have sex with men\u201d and \u201cwomen who have sex with women\u201d as United Nations agencies do, in recognition of the fact that not all persons who engage in homosexual sex identify themselves as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. Regardless of self-identification, all these persons are criminalized in places where homosexual activity is illegal."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13552070215891"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib80","first-page":"62","article-title":"\u201cNepal: Supreme Court Makes Landmark Decisions on LGBTI Rights and the Right to Confidentiality,\u201d","volume":"13","author":"Chu","year":"2008","journal-title":"HIV\/AIDS Policy and Law Review"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib7","unstructured":"7. 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See Csete, and Seshu, , supra note 45."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib58","volume-title":"Our Lives Matter: Sex Workers Unite for Health and Rights","author":"Crago","year":"2008"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib109","volume-title":"Redefining AIDS in Asia: Crafting an Effective Response","year":"2008"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2007.129858"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib71","unstructured":"71. See Crago, , supra note 58, at 31."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib24","unstructured":"24. Id., at 10."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib27","unstructured":"27. See Carey, and Tolopilo, , supra note 19, at 24."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.315.7120.1390"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib23","unstructured":"23. 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International Commission of Jurists - Kenya, \u201cStatement on the Situation of Human Rights Violations and Abuses Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Africa,\u201d May 13, 2009, available at <http:\/\/www.iglhrc.org\/cgi-bin\/iowa\/article\/takeaction\/resourcecenter\/926.html> (last visited September 29, 2010)."},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib21","volume-title":"\u201cHealth Rights Advocacy in Kyrgyzstan,\u201d","author":"Newton","year":"2007"},{"key":"S1073110500013838_bib83","unstructured":"83. Naz Foundation v. 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