{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,22]],"date-time":"2026-09-22T10:12:28Z","timestamp":1790071948159,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1733270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Child Psychology Psychiatry"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>More than half of the current US population was exposed to adverse lead levels in childhood as a result of lead's past use in gasoline. The total contribution of childhood lead exposures to US\u2010population mental health and personality has yet to be evaluated.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      We combined serial, cross\u2010sectional blood\u2013lead level (BLL) data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) with historic leaded\u2010gasoline data to estimate US childhood BLLs from 1940 to 2015 and calculate population mental\u2010health symptom elevations from known lead\u2010psychopathology associations. We utilized five outcomes: (1) General Psychopathology \u201cpoints\u201d,\u00a0reflecting an individual's liability to overall mental disorder, scaled to match IQ scores (\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u2009100,\n                      <jats:italic>SD<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u200915); (2) Symptoms of Internalizing disorders (anxiety and depression) and Attention\u2010deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD\/HD), both\n                      <jats:italic>z<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2010scored (\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090,\n                      <jats:italic>SD<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20091); and (3) Differences in the personality traits of Neuroticism and Conscientiousness (\n                      <jats:italic>M<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20090,\n                      <jats:italic>SD<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2009=\u20091).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Assuming that published lead\u2010psychopathology associations are causal and not purely correlational: We estimate that by 2015, the US population had gained 602\u2010million General Psychopathology factor points because of exposure arising from leaded gasoline, reflecting a 0.13\u2010standard\u2010deviation increase in overall liability to mental illness in the population and an estimated 151 million excess mental disorders attributable to lead exposure. Investigation of specific disorder\u2010domain symptoms identified a 0.64\u2010standard\u2010deviation increase in population\u2010level Internalizing symptoms and a 0.42\u2010standard\u2010deviation increase in AD\/HD symptoms. Population\u2010level Neuroticism increased by 0.14 standard deviations and Conscientiousness decreased by 0.20 standard deviations. Lead\u2010associated mental health and personality differences were most pronounced for cohorts born from 1966 through 1986 (Generation X).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A significant burden of mental illness symptomatology and disadvantageous personality differences can be attributed to US children's exposure to lead over the past 75\u2009years. Lead's potential contribution to psychiatry, medicine, and children's health may be larger than previously assumed.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.14072","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]],"date-time":"2024-12-04T03:00:25Z","timestamp":1733281225000},"page":"659-666","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Contribution of childhood lead exposure to psychopathology in the\n                    <scp>US<\/scp>\n                    population over the past 75\u2009years"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"66","author":[{"given":"Michael J.","family":"McFarland","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Demography and Population Health Florida State University  Tallahassee FL USA"},{"name":"Department of Sociology Florida State University  Tallahassee FL USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5713-4913","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aaron","family":"Reuben","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology Duke University  Durham NC USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry &amp; Behavioral Sciences Medical University of South Carolina  Charleston SC USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matt","family":"Hauer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Demography and Population Health Florida State University  Tallahassee FL USA"},{"name":"Department of Sociology Florida State University  Tallahassee FL USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12940-022-00936-x"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","volume-title":"Toxicology profile for lead","author":"ATSDR","year":"2020"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/MOP.0b013e3282f4f97b"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2009.164"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.9478"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2020.3221"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2018.17121383"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16030382"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000274"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2013.01.009"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regsciurbeco.2022.103826"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2023.138207"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP5685"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15374411003591455"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2118631119"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1010076108"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10773525.2018.1507291"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/EHP14809"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/pne0000225"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_21_1","volume-title":"Lucifer curves: The legacy of lead poisoning","author":"Nevin R.","year":"2016"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.6777"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_23_1","unstructured":"Rees N. &Fuller R.(2020).The toxic truth: Children's exposure to lead pollution undermines a generation of future potential. United Nations Children's Fund. Available from:https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/reports\/toxic\u2010truth\u2010childrens\u2010exposure\u2010to\u2010lead\u2010pollution\u20102020[last accessed 9 September 2020]."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2018.4192"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/oemed-2023-109210"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.0900625"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_27_1","unstructured":"Rukikaire K.(2022).Era of leaded petrol over eliminating a major threat to human and planetary health United Nations. 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