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This association may reflect shared risk factors, ADHD symptoms hindering learning, or learning difficulties increasing ADHD symptoms. We aimed to map rates of co\u2010occurrence among ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties and to investigate directional influences between ADHD symptoms and reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Reading fluency, arithmetic, and reading comprehension were assessed longitudinally in approximately 2,000 Finnish children across Grades 1\u20139 (ages 7\u201316). Attention\/hyperactivity symptoms were measured with teacher ratings (Grades 1\u20134) and self\u2010reports (Grades 6\u20139). ADHD, dyslexia, dyscalculia, and reading comprehension difficulties were based on a 10th percentile cut\u2010off. Directionality between ADHD symptoms and academic skills was examined using random intercept cross\u2010lagged panel models (RI\u2010CLPMs) to separate stable traits from time\u2010specific states.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Children with a learning difficulty were 1.14\u20131.76 times more likely to have ADHD, whereas children with one learning difficulty were 4.32\u20134.62 times more likely to have another. The RI\u2010CLPMs showed consistent autoregressive effects across all domains, indicating stable within\u2010person variation over time. At the between\u2010person level (i.e. trait), academic skills were negatively related to ADHD symptoms, especially those reported by teachers. At the within\u2010person level (i.e. state), ADHD symptoms were unrelated to reading fluency and arithmetic. However, at multiple time points, cross\u2010lagged effects emerged from ADHD symptoms to subsequent reading comprehension, indicating that elevated ADHD symptoms predicted subsequent declines in reading comprehension.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Learning difficulties co\u2010occurred more frequently with each other (homotypic) than with ADHD (heterotypic co\u2010occurrence). Both ADHD symptoms and learning difficulties showed trait\u2010like stability. After accounting for these, ADHD symptoms were no longer linked to reading fluency or arithmetic. However, more ADHD symptoms predicted later declines in reading comprehension, likely because comprehension requires sustained attention \u2013 often impaired in children with hyperactivity and inattention.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.70244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,12]],"date-time":"2026-10-12T03:50:58Z","timestamp":1791777058000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["<scp>ADHD<\/scp>\n                    symptoms and learning difficulties: co\u2010occurrence and directionality from Grades 1 to 9"],"prefix":"10.1111","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1425-2279","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Psyridou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Needs Education University of Oslo  Oslo Norway"},{"name":"Centre for Research on Equality in Education (CREATE) University of Oslo  Oslo Norway"},{"name":"Department of Psychology University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3834-9892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Minna","family":"Torppa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Teacher Education University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence in Learning Dynamics and Intervention Research (InterLearn) University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"},{"name":"Education for the Future Flagship (EDUCA), Faculty of Education and Psychology University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1249-7566","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kati","family":"Vasalampi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Education for the Future Flagship (EDUCA), Faculty of Education and Psychology University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"},{"name":"Department of Education University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7913-8691","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna\u2010Maija","family":"Poikkeus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Teacher Education University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"},{"name":"Education for the Future Flagship (EDUCA), Faculty of Education and Psychology University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5709-5800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marja\u2010Kristiina","family":"Lerkkanen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Teacher Education University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"},{"name":"Education for the Future Flagship (EDUCA), Faculty of Education and Psychology University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4  Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 Finland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5860-5745","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elsje","family":"van Bergen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Psychology Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam  Amsterdam the Netherlands"},{"name":"Research Institute LEARN! 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