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Hormonal contraceptives (HCs) are widely used by over 300 million women globally, yet their neurobiological and behavioral impacts have only recently gained extensive research attention. This review emphasizes the importance of animal models in studying these effects due to the practical and ethical limitations of human studies. By distinguishing drug\u2010specific variables (e.g., dosage, chemical composition, routes of administration) from user\u2010specific variables (lifestyle factors, genetic predispositions), researchers can better understand HC\u2010related outcomes. Here, we emphasize the utility of animal models for uncovering putative mechanisms underlying the effects of HCs observed in human studies. Moreover, the authors reflect on the design of the animal models of HC used in their experiments, past and present. We also discuss current research related to user\u2010specific variables which highlight the vulnerability of adolescents to the adverse effects of HCs, exposure to stressors, and the compounded risks of HC when combined with substances like cannabinoids and nicotine. This review underscores the value of animal models in advancing our understanding of the broader neurobiological and behavioral impacts of HCs in humans. These studies are crucial for developing personalized medicine approaches and optimizing contraceptive regimens to mitigate risks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.13500","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T00:45:14Z","timestamp":1739234714000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Animal models of hormonal contraceptives: Understanding drug\u2010specific and user\u2010specific variables"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"37","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9391-1855","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jesse M.","family":"Lacasse","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology Brock University  St. Catharines Ontario Canada"},{"name":"Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute Centre for Addiction and Mental Health  Toronto Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0449-0217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nafissa","family":"Ismail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"NISE Lab, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa  Ottawa Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0848-7258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrizia","family":"Porcu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience Institute National Research Council of Italy (CNR)  Cagliari Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ami P.","family":"Raval","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Peritz Scheinberg Cerebral Vascular Disease Research Laboratories, Department of Neurology, Leonard M. 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