{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T22:56:37Z","timestamp":1784156197307,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]],"date-time":"2019-05-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1558310400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["sigmapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J of Nursing Scholarship"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:sec><jats:title>Purpose<\/jats:title><jats:p>Throughout the world, illicit drug use continues to pose a significant risk to public health. The opioid crisis in North America, the diversion of the prescription drug tramadol throughout Africa, and the increasing supply of methamphetamines in East and South Asia all contribute to increasing risks to individual and societal health. Furthermore, the violation of human rights in efforts to enforce prohibitionist values poses significant threats to many individuals worldwide. With these evolving situations, it is imperative that researchers direct their attention to the various populations of illicit drug users. However, the inclusion of illicit drug users, often considered a vulnerable population, as participants in research studies presents several increased risks that must be addressed in study protocols. Researchers are required to provide \u201cadditional safeguards\u201d to all study protocols involving illicit drug users, but there is often substantial variability and inconsistency in how these safeguards are applied. Additional safeguards can be timely, costly, and unduly burdensome for researchers, ethical review boards, and research participants.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Approach<\/jats:title><jats:p>Through synthesis of the current literature, this article addresses the barriers to studying illicit drug users and the methods researchers can utilize to minimize risk. A case study is provided to illustrate the high level of scrutiny of study protocols involving the participation of illicit drug users and the effect of such scrutiny on recruitment of participants. The article concludes with a discussion of the effects of the current political climate on the recruitment of illicit drug users in research.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title><jats:p>Individuals who participate in criminal or illegal behaviors such as illicit drug use, prostitution, illegal entry into a country, and human trafficking are susceptible to multiple physical, mental, and social health risks, as well as criminal prosecution. The importance of research on the health of marginalized populations cannot be overstated. This work must continue, and at the same time, we must continue to protect these individuals to the best of our ability through diligent attention to sound research methods.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Clinical Relevance<\/jats:title><jats:p>The use of illicit drugs continues to pose a substantial threat to global health. Individuals who use illicit drugs are susceptible to multiple physical, mental, and social health risks, as well as criminal prosecution. It is imperative that researchers study these vulnerable populations in order to develop interventions to minimize individual and societal harm. There are several barriers to the study of illicit drug users that must be addressed through rigorous methodology and the addition of safeguards.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1111\/jnu.12486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]],"date-time":"2019-05-20T08:29:38Z","timestamp":1558340978000},"page":"480-488","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Challenges to Studying Illicit Drug Users"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"51","author":[{"given":"Jennie E.","family":"Ryan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"<i>Alpha Nu<\/i>  Postdoctoral Research Fellow Center for the Study of Drugs Alcohol, Smoking and Health University of Michigan T32 (NR016914) Complexity: Innovations for Promoting Health and Safety  Ann Arbor MI USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Suzanne C.","family":"Smeltzer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"<i>Alpha Nu<\/i>  Director of Office of Nursing Research and Evaluation an The Richard and Marianne Kreider Endowed Professor in Nursing for Vulnerable Populations M. Louise Fitzpatrick College of Nursing Villanova University  Villanova PA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nancy C.","family":"Sharts\u2010Hopko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"<i>Alpha Nu<\/i>  Professor M. Louise Fitzpatrick College of Nursing Villanova University  Villanova PA USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/jer.2011.6.1.3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2007.09.001"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2006.06.011"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","unstructured":"Australian Injecting and Illicit Drug Users League. (2012).The involvement of drug users organizations in Australian drugs policy; a research report from AIVL\u2019s \u201cTrackmarks\u201d project. Retrieved fromhttps:\/\/nuaa.org.au\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/11\/T4.7.2-aivl-drug-user.pdf."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/jer.2011.6.4.84"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-2456(03)00003-5"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08989620802388689"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Certificates of confidentiality and informed consent: Perspectives of IRB chairs and institutional legal counsel","volume":"36","author":"Check D. K.","year":"2014","journal-title":"IRB: Ethics & Human Research"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","first-page":"167","article-title":"Human subject issues in drug abuse research","volume":"37","author":"College on Problems of Drug Dependence","year":"1995","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Dependence"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.162.21.2458"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30375-3"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002204260403400414"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","unstructured":"Gelsinger v. Trustees of the Univ. of Pa. No. 000901885(Pa. Ct. Com. Pl. Sept. 18 2000)."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-199511000-00012"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60830-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2005-1233"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00126334-199907010-00010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2005.082172"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1353\/hcr.2008.0029"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)60232-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.67.2.186"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00002820-199302000-00002"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_24_1","volume-title":"The Belmont Report: Ethical principles and guidelines for the protection of human subjects of research","author":"National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research","year":"1979"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_25_1","volume-title":"Code of Federal Regulations: Title 45 human welfare. Part 46 protection of human subjects","author":"Office for Human Research Protections","year":"2010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10826080802543671"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1996.03540200009004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00042560-200007010-00014"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_29_1","volume-title":"Memorandum for all United States attorneys; marijuana enforcement","author":"Sessions J.","year":"2018"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327019eb0401_1"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2013.12.010"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12910-016-0108-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stone G. R.(2002).Above the law: Research methods ethics and the law of privilege (University of Chicago Public Law & Legal Theory Working Paper No. 21).Retrieved fromhttps:\/\/chicagounbound.uchicago.edu\/cgi\/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1010&context=public_law_and_legal_theory","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.304482"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_34_1","volume-title":"Ethical challenges in drug epidemiology: Issues, principles and guidelines. Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse (GAP). Toolkit module 7","author":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime","year":"2004"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2018).World drug report. Executive summary. Conclusions and policy implications. Retrieved fromhttps:\/\/www.unodc.org\/wdr2018\/prelaunch\/WDR18_Booklet_1_EXSUM.pdf","DOI":"10.18356\/a1062695-en"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_36_1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Office for Human Research Protections. (2018).CR 46.111 (b). Washington DC: Author. Retrieved fromhttps:\/\/www.ecfr.gov\/cgi-bin\/retrieveECFR?gp=&SID=83cd09e1c0f5c6937cd9d7513160fc3f&pitd=20180719&n=pt45.1.46&r=PART&ty=HTML#se45.1.46_1111"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_37_1","unstructured":"U.S. Department of State. (2010).Malaysia country specific information. Retrieved fromhttps:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20110217140806\/http:\/\/travel.state.gov\/travel\/cis_pa_tw\/cis\/cis_960.html#criminal_penalties"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_38_1","volume-title":"Technical guide for countries to set targets for universal access to HIV prevention, treatment and care for injecting drug users","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2009"}],"container-title":["Journal of Nursing Scholarship"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1111%2Fjnu.12486","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/jnu.12486","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1111\/jnu.12486","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/sigmapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/jnu.12486","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,7]],"date-time":"2023-09-07T21:31:19Z","timestamp":1694122279000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/sigmapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/jnu.12486"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/jnu.12486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/jnu.12486","archive":["Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["1527-6546","1547-5069"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1527-6546","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-5069","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,20]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2019-02-03","order":1,"name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}},{"value":"2019-05-20","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]}}