{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T14:20:45Z","timestamp":1789914045283,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]],"date-time":"2016-07-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1469491200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Anatomy"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2016,12]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>It is widely accepted by developmental biologists that the malleus and incus of the mammalian middle ear are first pharyngeal arch derivatives, a contention based originally on classical embryology that has now been backed up by molecular evidence from rodent models. However, it has been claimed in several studies of human ossicular development that the manubrium of the malleus and long process of the incus are actually derived from the second arch. This \u2018dual\u2010arch\u2019 interpretation is commonly presented in otolaryngology textbooks, and it has been used by clinicians to explain the aetiology of certain congenital abnormalities of the human middle ear. In order to re\u2010examine the origins of the human malleus and incus, we made three\u2010dimensional reconstructions of the pharyngeal region of human embryos from 7 to 28\u2005mm crown\u2013rump length, based on serial histological sections from the Boyd Collection. We considered the positions of the developing ossicles relative to the pharyngeal pouches and clefts, and the facial and chorda tympani nerves. Confirming observations from previous studies, the primary union between first pharyngeal pouch and first cleft found in our youngest specimens was later lost, the external meatus developing rostroventral to this position. The mesenchyme of the first and second arches in these early embryos seemed to be continuous, but the boundaries of the developing ossicles proved to be very hard to determine at this stage. When first distinguishable, the indications were that both the manubrium of the malleus and the long process of the incus were emerging within the first pharyngeal arch. We therefore conclude that the histological evidence, on balance, favours the \u2018classical\u2019 notion that the human malleus and incus are first\u2010arch structures. The embryological basis of congenital ossicular abnormalities should be reconsidered in this light.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12520","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]],"date-time":"2016-07-26T06:46:45Z","timestamp":1469515605000},"page":"857-870","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Early development of the malleus and incus in humans"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"229","author":[{"given":"Charlotte M.","family":"Burford","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Development &amp; Neuroscience University of Cambridge Cambridge UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew J.","family":"Mason","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Development &amp; Neuroscience University of Cambridge Cambridge UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,7,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.20666"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/000348946006900212"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12344"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7580.2012.01526.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022215100107947"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","volume-title":"Bluestone and Stool's Pediatric Otolaryngology","author":"Bluestone CD","year":"2014"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2741\/3813"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10162-009-0179-6"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","first-page":"76","article-title":"Congenital ossicular abnormalities: a review of 68 cases","volume":"9","author":"Cousins VC","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am J Otol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","first-page":"391","article-title":"The second visceral arch and groove in the tubo\u2010tympanic region","volume":"48","author":"Frazer JE","year":"1914","journal-title":"J Anat Physiol"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Die Reichertsche Theorie (Hammer\u2010, Amboss\u2010 und Kieferfrage)","volume":"1912","author":"Gaupp E","year":"1913","journal-title":"Archiv f\u00fcr Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(93)90619-2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/b15118"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5005\/jp\/books\/11835"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","first-page":"119","article-title":"Development of the malleus of the human ear. 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