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Here, we present a new R\u2010based software tool, <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic>, applicable to the study of the sizes and shapes of skeletal cavities and fossae in 3D digital images. Traditional methods of volume extraction involve the manual labelling (i.e. segmentation) of the areas of interest on each section of the image stack. This is time\u2010consuming, error\u2010prone and challenging to apply to complex cavities. <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic> facilitates rapid quantification of such structures. We describe and detail its application to the isolation and calculation of volumes of various cranial cavities. The R tool is used here to automatically extract the orbital volumes, the paranasal sinuses, the nasal cavity and the upper oral volumes, based on the coordinates of 18 cranial anatomical points used to define their limits, from 3D cranial surface meshes obtained by segmenting CT scans. <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic> includes an algorithm (<jats:italic>Icv<\/jats:italic>) for the calculation of volumes by defining a 3D convex hull of the extracted cavity. We demonstrate the use of <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic> on an ontogenetic sample (0\u201319\u2009years) of modern humans and on the fossil hominin crania Kabwe (Broken Hill) 1, Gibraltar (Forbes' Quarry) and Guattari 1. We also test the tool on three species of non\u2010human primates. In the modern human subsample, <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic> allowed us to perform a preliminary analysis on the absolute and relative expansion of cranial sinuses and pneumatisations during growth. The performance of <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic>, applied to diverse crania, shows the potential for an extensive evaluation of the developmental and\/or evolutionary significance of hollow cranial structures. Furthermore, being open source, <jats:italic>Icex<\/jats:italic> is a fully customisable tool, easily applicable to other taxa and skeletal regions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.13843","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,12]],"date-time":"2023-02-12T02:40:25Z","timestamp":1676169625000},"page":"1172-1183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["<i>Icex<\/i>: Advances in the automatic extraction and volume calculation of cranial cavities"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"242","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8951-2990","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Costantino","family":"Buzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"DFG Centre of Advanced Studies \u2018Words, Bones, Genes, Tools\u2019 Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"Institut Catal\u00e0 de Paleoecologia Humana i Evoluci\u00f3 Social (IPHES\u2010CERCA)  Tarragona Spain"},{"name":"Departament d'Hist\u00f2ria i Hist\u00f2ria de l'Art Universitat Rovira i Virgili  Tarragona Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2884-7118","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Profico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology University of Pisa  Pisa Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6789-1501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ce","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University College London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0649-1432","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roman H.","family":"Khonsari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University College London  London UK"},{"name":"Department of Maxillo\u2010Facial Surgery and Plastic Surgery Necker \u2013 Enfants Malades University Hospital, Assistance Publique \u2013 H\u00f4pitaux de Paris  Paris France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9797-0809","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paul","family":"O'Higgins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Archaeology and Hull York Medical School University of York  York UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9951-2975","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mehran","family":"Moazen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering University College London  London UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5998-4794","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Harvati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"DFG Centre of Advanced Studies \u2018Words, Bones, Genes, Tools\u2019 Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"},{"name":"Paleoanthropology, Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karls University of T\u00fcbingen  T\u00fcbingen Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12378"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.abp9767"},{"issue":"2","key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","first-page":"27","article-title":"Frontal sinus variation in extant species of the genera Pan, Gorilla and Homo","volume":"33","author":"Balzeau A.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bulletins et m\u00e9moires de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d'Anthropologie de Paris. 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